MILITARY LASER TECHNOLOGY FOR DEFENSE

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1 MILITARY LASER TECHNOLOGY FOR DEFENSE

2 Military Laser Technology for Defense Technology for Revolutionizing 21st Century Warfare Alastair D. McAulay Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA

3 Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) , fax (978) , or on the web at Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) , fax (201) , or online at Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) , outside the United States at (317) or fax (317) Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at ISBN Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available. Printed in Singapore

4 CONTENTS PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ABOUT THE AUTHOR xiii xv xvii I OPTICS TECHNOLOGY FOR DEFENSE SYSTEMS 1 1 OPTICAL RAYS Paraxial Optics / Geometric or Ray Optics / Fermat s Principle / Fermat s Principle Proves Snell s Law for Refraction / Limits of Geometric Optics or Ray Theory / Fermat s Principle Derives Ray Equation / Useful Applications of the Ray Equation / Matrix Representation for Geometric Optics / Optics for Launching and Receiving Beams / Imaging with a Single Thin Lens / Beam Expanders / Beam Compressors / Telescopes / Microscopes / Spatial Filters / 18 v

5 vi CONTENTS 2 GAUSSIAN BEAMS AND POLARIZATION Gaussian Beams / Description of Gaussian Beams / Gaussian Beam with ABCD Law / Forming and Receiving Gaussian Beams with Lenses / Polarization / Wave Plates or Phase Retarders / Stokes Parameters / Poincaré Sphere / Finding Point on Poincaré Sphere and Elliptical Polarization from Stokes Parameters / Controlling Polarization / 36 3 OPTICAL DIFFRACTION Introduction to Diffraction / Description of Diffraction / Review of Fourier Transforms / Uncertainty Principle for Fourier Transforms / Uncertainty Principle for Fourier Transforms in Time / Uncertainty Principle for Fourier Transforms in Space / Scalar Diffraction / Preliminaries: Green s Function and Theorem / Field at a Point due to Field on a Boundary / Diffraction from an Aperture / Fresnel Approximation / Fraunhofer Approximation / Role of Numerical Computation / Diffraction-Limited Imaging / Intuitive Effect of Aperture in Imaging System / Computing the Diffraction Effect of a Lens Aperture on Imaging / 57 4 DIFFRACTIVE OPTICAL ELEMENTS Applications of DOEs / Diffraction Gratings / Bending Light with Diffraction Gratings and Grating Equation / Cosinusoidal Grating / Performance of Grating / 66

6 CONTENTS vii 4.3 Zone Plate Design and Simulation / Appearance and Focusing of Zone Plate / Zone Plate Computation for Design and Simulation / Gerchberg Saxton Algorithm for Design of DOEs / Goal of Gerchberg Saxton Algorithm / Inverse Problem for Diffractive Optical Elements / Gerchberg Saxton Algorithm for Forward Computation / Gerchberg Saxton Inverse Algorithm for Designing a Phase-Only Filter or DOE / 74 5 PROPAGATION AND COMPENSATION FOR ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE Statistics Involved / Ergodicity / Locally Homogeneous Random Field Structure Function / Spatial Power Spectrum of Structure Function / Optical Turbulence in the Atmosphere / Kolmogorov s Energy Cascade Theory / Power Spectrum Models for Refractive Index in Optical Turbulence / Atmospheric Temporal Statistics / Long-Distance Turbulence Models / Adaptive Optics / Devices and Systems for Adaptive Optics / Computation of Laser Light Through Atmospheric Turbulence / Layered Model of Propagation Through Turbulent Atmosphere / Generation of Kolmogorov Phase Screens by the Spectral Method / Generation of Kolmogorov Phase Screens from Covariance Using Structure Functions / 94 6 OPTICAL INTERFEROMETERS AND OSCILLATORS Optical Interferometers / Michelson Interferometer / Mach Zehnder Interferometer / Optical Fiber Sagnac Interferometer / Fabry Perot Resonators / Fabry Perot Principles and Equations / Fabry Perot Equations / 110

7 viii CONTENTS Piezoelectric Tuning of Fabry Perot Tuners / Thin-Film Interferometric Filters and Dielectric Mirrors / Applications for Thin Films / Forward Computation Through Thin-Film Layers with Matrix Method / Inverse Problem of Computing Parameters for Layers / 122 II LASER TECHNOLOGY FOR DEFENSE SYSTEMS PRINCIPLES FOR BOUND ELECTRON STATE LASERS Laser Generation of Bound Electron State Coherent Radiation / Advantages of Coherent Light from a Laser / Basic Light Matter Interaction Theory for Generating Coherent Light / Semiconductor Laser Diodes / p n Junction / Semiconductor Laser Diode Gain / Semiconductor Laser Dynamics / Semiconductor Arrays for High Power / Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers / POWER LASERS Characteristics / Wavelength / Beam Quality / Power / Methods of Pumping / Materials for Use with High-Power Lasers / Solid-State Lasers / Principles of Solid-State Lasers / Frequency Doubling in Solid State Lasers / Powerful Gas Lasers / Gas Dynamic Carbon Dioxide Power Lasers / COIL System / PULSED HIGH PEAK POWER LASERS Situations in which Pulsed Lasers may be Preferable / Mode-Locked Lasers / 167

8 CONTENTS ix Mode-Locking Lasers / Methods of Implementing Mode Locking / Q-Switched Lasers / Space and Time Focusing of Laser Light / Space Focusing with Arrays and Beamforming / Concentrating Light Simultaneously in Time and Space / ULTRAHIGH-POWER CYCLOTRON MASERS/LASERS Introduction to Cyclotron or Gyro Lasers and Masers / Stimulated Emission in an Electron Cyclotron / Gyrotron-Type Lasers and Masers / Principles of Electron Cyclotron Oscillators and Amplifiers / Gyrotron Operating Point and Structure / Vircator Impulse Source / Rationale for Considering the Vircator / Structure and Operation of Vircator / Selecting Frequency of Microwave Emission from a Vircator / Marx Generator / Demonstration Unit of Marx Generator Driving a Vircator / FREE-ELECTRON LASER/MASER Significance and Principles of Free-Electron Laser/Maser / Significance of Free-Electron Laser/Maser / Principles of Free-Electron Laser/Maser / Explanation of Free-Electron Laser Operation / Wavelength Versatility for Free-Electron Laser / Electron Bunching for Stimulated Emission in Free-Electron Laser / Description of High- and Low-Power Demonstrations / Proposed Airborne Free-Electron Laser / Demonstration of Low-Power System for Free-Electron Maser at 8 12 GHz / Achieving Low Frequencies with FELs / 200

9 x CONTENTS Range of Tuning / Design of Magnetic Wiggler / 203 III APPLICATIONS TO PROTECT AGAINST MILITARY THREATS LASER PROTECTION FROM MISSILES Protecting from Missiles and Nuclear-Tipped ICBMs / Introducing Lasers to Protect from Missiles / Protecting from Nuclear-Tipped ICBMs / The Airborne Laser Program for Protecting from ICBMs / Lasers in Airborne Laser / Incorporating Adaptive Optics for Main Beam Cleanup into Airborne Laser / Incorporating Adaptive Optics to Compensate for Atmospheric Turbulence in ABL / Illuminating Lasers for Selecting Target Aim Point / Nose Turret / Challenges Encountered in the ABL Program / Modeling Adaptive Optics and Tracking for Airborne Laser / Protecting from Homing Missiles / Threat to Aircraft from Homing Missiles / Overview of On-Aircraft Laser Countermeasure System / Operation of Countermeasure Subsystems / Protecting Aircraft from Ground-Based Missiles / Protecting Assets from Missiles / LASER TO ADDRESS THREAT OF NEW NUCLEAR WEAPONS Laser Solution to Nuclear Weapons Threat / Main Purpose of U.S. and International Efforts / Benefits of Massive Laser Project / About the NIF Laser / Description of National Infrastructure Laser / Structure of the NIF Laser / PROTECTING ASSETS FROM DIRECTED ENERGY LASERS Laser Characteristics Estimated by Laser Warning Device / Laser Warning Devices / 239

10 CONTENTS xi Grating for Simultaneously Estimating Direction and Frequency / Lens for Estimating Direction Only / Fizeau Interferometer / Integrated Array Waveguide Grating Optic Chip for Spectrum Analysis / Design of AWG for Laser Weapons / LIDAR PROTECTS FROM CHEMICAL/BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS Introduction to Lidar and Military Applications / Other Military Applications for Lidar / Description of Typical Lidar System / Laser / Cassegrain Transmit/Receive Antennas / Receiver Optics and Detector / Lidar Equation / Spectrometers / Fabry Perot-Based Laboratory Optical Spectrum Analyzer / Diffraction-Based Spectrometer / Grating Operation in Spectrometer / Grating Efficiency / Spectroscopic Lidar Senses Chemical Weapons / Transmission Detection of Chemical and Biological Materials / Scattering Detection of Chemical and Bacteriological Weapons Using Lidar / GHz RADAR DETECTS/TRACKS/IDENTIFIES OBJECTS IN BAD WEATHER Propagation of Electromagnetic Radiation Through Atmosphere / High-Resolution Inclement Weather 94 GHz Radar / GHz Radar System Description / Gyroklystron with Quasi-Optical Resonator / Overmoded Low 94 GHz Loss Transmission Line from Gyroklystron to Antenna / Quasi-Optical Duplexer / Antenna / Data Processing and Performance / 273

11 xii CONTENTS 16.3 Applications, Monitoring Space, High Doppler, and Low Sea Elevation / Monitoring Satellites in Low Earth Orbit / Problem of Detecting and Tracking Lower Earth Orbit Debris / Doppler Detection and Identification / Low Elevation Radar at Sea / PROTECTING FROM TERRORISTS WITH W-BAND Nonlethal Crowd Control with Active Denial System / Body Scanning for Hidden Weapons / Inspecting Unopened Packages / Principles for Proposed Unopened Package Inspection / Destruction and Protection of Electronics / Interfering or Destroying Enemy Electronics / Protecting Electronics from Electromagnetic Destruction / 286 BIBLIOGRAPHY 289 INDEX 299

12 PREFACE In 1832, Carl Von Clausewitz [22] wrote: War is an extension of politics. Historically, war erupts when groups cannot resolve their conflicts politically. Consequently, every group must prepare to defend itself against reasonable future threats. Laser technology is ideal for defense against modern weapons because laser beams can project energy over kilometers in microseconds, fast enough to eliminate most countermeasure responses. This book includes only unclassified or declassified information and focuses on military applications that involve propagation through the atmosphere. Chapters 1 6 provide background material on optical technologies. Chapters 7 11 describe laser technologies including efficient ultrahigh-power lasers such as the free-electron laser that will have a major impact on future warfare. Chapters show how laser technologies can effectively mitigate six of the most pressing military threats of the 21st century. This includes the use of lasers to protect against missiles, future nuclear weapons, directed beam weapons, chemical and biological attacks, and terrorists and to overcome the difficulty of imaging in bad weather conditions. Understanding these threats and their associated laser protection systems is critical for allocating resources wisely because a balance is required between maintaining a strong economy, an effective infrastructure, and a capable military defense. A strong defense discourages attackers and is often, in the long run, more cost-effective than alternatives. I believe laser technology will revolutionize warfare in the 21st century. Alastair D. McAulay Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA xiii

13 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank my wife Carol-Julia, for her patience and help with this book. Also my thanks to my son Alexander and his wife Elizabeth. I wish to acknowledge the too-manyto-name researchers in this field whose publications I have referenced or with whom I have had discussions. This includes appreciation for the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE), the Optical Society of America (OSA), and IEEE. I also thank Lehigh University for providing me with the environment to write this book. xv

14 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Alastair McAulay received a PhD in Electrical Engineering from Carnegie Mellon University, and an MA and BA in Mechanical Sciences from Cambridge University. Since 1992, he is a Professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at Lehigh University; he was Chandler-Weaver Professor and Chair of EECS at Lehigh from 1992 to 1997 and NCR Distinguished Professor and Chair of CSE at Wright State University from 1987 to Prior to that, he was in the Corporate Laboratories of Texas Instruments for 8 years, where he was program manager for a DARPA optical data flow computer described in his book Optical Computer Architectures that was published by Wiley in Prior to that, he worked in the defense industry on projects such as the Advanced Light Weight Torpedo that became the Mk. 50 torpedo. Dr McAulay can be contacted via network Linked In. xvii

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