Optics and Lasers. Matt Young. Including Fibers and Optical Waveguides

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1 Matt Young Optics and Lasers Including Fibers and Optical Waveguides Fourth Revised Edition With 188 Figures Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest

2 Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. Ray Optics Reflection and Refraction Refraction Index of Refraction Reflection Total Internal Reflection Reflecting Prisms Imaging Spherical Surfaces Object-Image Relationship Use of the Sign Convention Lens Equation Classification of Lenses and Images Spherical Mirrors Thick Lenses Image Construction Magnification Newton's Form of the Lens Equation Lagrange Invariant Aberrations 23 Problems Optical Instruments The Eye (as an Optical Instrument) Basic Camera Photographic Emulsion Sensitometry Resolving Power Depth of Field Projection Systems Hand Lens or Simple Magnifier Microscope 39

3 X Contents 3.6 Scanning Confocal Microscope Nipkow Disk Telescope Pupils and Stops Field Stop Terrestrial Telescopes Resolving Power of Optical Instruments Camera Telescope Microscope Condensers 50 Problems Light Sources and Detectors Radiometry and Photometry 55 4Л.1 Radiometric Units Photometric Units Point Source Extended Source Diffuse Reflector Integrating Sphere Image Illuminance Image Luminance Light Sources Blackbodies Color Temperature and Brightness Temperature Line Sources Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Detectors Quantum Detectors Thermal Detectors Detector Performance Parameters 82 Problems Wave Optics Waves Electromagnetic Waves Complex-Exponential Functions Superposition of Waves Group Velocity Group Index of Refraction Interference by Division of Wavefront Double-Slit Interference Multiple-Slit Interference 96

4 Contents XI 5.4 Interference by Division of Amplitude Two-Beam Interference Multiple-Reflection Interference Diffraction Single-Slit Diffraction Interference by Finite Slits Fresnel Diffraction Far and Near Field Babinet's Principle Fermat's Principle Coherence Temporal Coherence Spatial Coherence Coherence of Thermal Sources Coherence of Microscope Illumination Theoretical Resolution Limit Two-Point Resolution Coherent Illumination Diffused, Coherent Illumination Quasi-Thermal Source 124 Problems Interferometry and Related Areas Diffraction Grating Blazing Chromatic Resolving Power Michelson Interferometer Twyman-Green Interferometer Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Fabry-Perot Interferometer Chromatic Resolving Power Free Spectral Range Confocal Fabry-Perot Interferometer Multilayer Mirrors and Interference Filters Quarter-Wave Layer Multilayer Mirrors Interference Filters 140 Problems Holography and Image Processing Holography Off-Axis Holography Zone-Plate Interpretation 147

5 XII Contents Amplitude and Phase Holograms Thick Holograms Optical Processing Abbe Theory Fourier Series Fourier-Transform Optics Spatial Filtering Phase Contrast Matched Filter Converging-Beam Optical Processor Impulse Response and Transfer Function Impulse Response Edge Response Impulse Response of the Scanning Confocal Microscope Image Restoration Optical Transfer Function Coherent Transfer Function Diffraction-Limited Transfer Functions MTF of Photographic Films Digital Image Processing Video Camera Single-Pixel Operations Cross-Correlation Video Microscope Dimensional Measurement 186 Problems Lasers Amplification of Light Optical Amplifier Optically Pumped Laser Rate Equations Output Power Q-Switched Laser Mode-Locked Laser Optical Resonators Axial Modes Transverse Modes Gaussian Beams Stability Diagram Coherence of Laser Sources Specific Laser Systems Ruby Laser 210

6 Contents XIII Neodymium Laser Organic-Dye Lasers Helium-Neon Laser Ion Lasers C0 2 Laser Other Gas Lasers Semiconductor Lasers Laser Safety Sunglasses 221 Problems Electromagnetic and Polarization Effects Reflection and Refraction Propagation Brewster's Angle Reflection Interface between Two Dense Media Internal Reflection Phase Change Reflection from Metals Polarization Birefringence Wave Plates Glan-Thompson and Nicol Prisms Dichroic Polarizers Optical Activity Liquid Crystals Nonlinear Optics Second-Harmonic Generation Phase Matching Optical Mixing Electro-optics, Magneto-optics and Acousto-optics Kerr Effect Pockels Effect Electro-optic Light Modulation Acousto-optic Beam Deflection Faraday Effect 247 Problems Optical Waveguides Rays in Optical Fibers Modes in Optical Waveguides Propagation Constant and Phase Velocity Prism Coupler. 256

7 XIV Contents Grating Coupler Modes in Circular Waveguides Number of Modes in a Waveguide Single-Mode Waveguide Graded-Index Fibers Parabolic Profile Local Numerical Aperture Leaky Rays Restricted Launch Bending Loss and Mode Coupling Connectors Multimode Fibers Single-Mode Fibers Star Couplers 274 Problems Optical-Fiber Measurements Launching Conditions Beam-Optics Launch Equilibrium Mode Simulator Cladding-Mode Stripper Attenuation Attenuation Measurements Fiber Bandwidth Distortion Material Dispersion Waveguide Dispersion Bandwidth Measurements Coherence Length of the Source Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry Index Profile Transverse Methods Longitudinal Methods Near-Field Scanning Refracted-Ray Method Core-Diameter Measurements Numerical-Aperture Measurements 296 Problems Integrated Optics Optical Integrated Circuits Channel or Strip Waveguides Ridge Waveguide Branches 304

8 Contents XV Distributed-Feedback Lasers Couplers Modulators and Switches Planar Optical Devices Mode-Index Lenses Lüneburg Lenses Geodesic Lenses Gratings Surface-Emitting Lasers 319 Problems 320 Suggested Reading Material 323 Subject Index 328

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