Handbook of Optical Systems

Transcription

1 Handbook of Optical Systems Volume 5: Metrology of Optical Components and Systems von Herbert Gross, Bernd Dörband, Henriette Müller 1. Auflage Handbook of Optical Systems Gross / Dörband / Müller schnell und portofrei erhältlich bei beck-shop.de DIE FACHBUCHHANDLUNG WILEY-VCH 2012 Verlag C.H. Beck im Internet: ISBN

2 XI Preface XIX Introduction XXI 46 Interferometry Introduction Basic Principles of Interference Plane Wave Complex Notation Spherical Wave Vector Sum of Complex Numbers Interference of Two Plane Waves Interference of Two Spherical Waves Interference of Two Waves with Different Wavelengths Coherence and Correlation Function Interference of Two Monochromatic Waves with Statistically Varying Phase Interference of two waves which have a spectrum Interference with Extended Monochromatic Light Sources Interference of Waves having Different Polarization Interference of Non-spherical Wavefronts Interference at Two Plane Parallel Interfaces Haidinger Fringes Newton Fringes Interferometers Newton Interferometer Fizeau Interferferometer Twyman Green Interferometer Mach Zehnder Interferometer Point Diffraction Interferometer Shearing Interferometer Interferometer Designs General Requirements 81 Handbook of Optical Systems: Vol. 5. Metrology of Optical Components and Systems. First Edition. Edited by Herbert Gross. Copyright 2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2012 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

3 XII Definition of Optical Components and Subassemblies Detection Techniques and Algorithms General Considerations Least-squares Phase Detection Error Sources Phase-shifting Interferometry Spatial Carrier Frequency Analysis Simultaneous phase-shifting interferometry Unwrapping Calibration Techniques Reference Elements with Known Residual Error Calibration Procedures Used to Determine Element Deviations Dynamic Range DR in Surface Topometry Dynamic Range of CCD Sensors in Interferometry and Wavefront Sensing Lateral DR of CCD Sensors in Interferometry and Wavefront Sensing Stitching Technique Used to Extend Lateral DR Accuracy and Error Sources Environmental Limitations Noise Capability of Measurement Systems Gauge R&R Analysis Analysis of Repeatability and Reproducibility Literature Non-interferometric Wavefront Sensing Introduction Hartmann Shack Sensor Principle of the HS Sensor Basic Setup Telescope for Diameter Adaptation Detector Relay Lens Layout of a Sensor Signal Processing Dynamic Range Subaperture Effects Accuracy of the HS Sensor Modified Setups and Algorithmic Extensions of the Sensor Comparison with Interferometer Setup Hartmann Sensor Introduction Accuracy of the Hartmann Method Partial Coherent Illumination and Apodization 216

4 XIII Hartmann Measurement of an Apodized Profile Modified Hartmann Methods Phase Space Analyzer Introduction Layout Versions Evaluation of the Data Wave Optical Description Point Image Filtering Techniques Other Wavefront Sensor Concepts Pyramid Curvature Sensor Hartmann Moire Wavefront Sensor Holographic Modal Wavefront Sensor Convolution Solvable Pinhole Mask Talbot Moire Interferometer Point Spread Function Retrieval Introduction Transport of Intensity Equation Principle of Phase Retrieval Experimental Settings Model Assumptions Image Processing Pinhole Deconvolution Numerical Evaluation Algorithms Apodization Object Space Defocusing Accuracy of Phase Retrieval Calculation of Wavefront and Zernike Coefficients Introduction Zonal Methods Modal Methods Modal Fourier Reconstruction Direct Determination of Zernike Coefficients from Slope Measurements Calculating the Zernike Coefficients of a Wavefront Zernike Calculation via Fourier Transform Influence of Normalization Radius on Zernike Coefficients Change in the Zernikes for Decentered, Rotated and Stretched Pupils Propagation Changes in the Zernike Coefficients Literature Radiometry Introduction Basic Principles of Radiometry Energy Transport by Electromagnetic Fields 305

5 XIV Radiometric and Photometric Quantities Fundamentals of Radiation Transfer Fundamentals of Flux Detection Monochromators Introduction Optical Absorption Filters Fabry PØrot Etalons Interference Filters Electronically Tunable Filters Prism Monochromators Grating Monochromators Spectrometers Introduction Basic Principles of Spectrometers Single-Channel Spectrometers Multi-channel Spectrometers Fourier Spectrometers Accuracy and Error Sources Calibration Techniques Literature Image Analysis Introduction Basic Principles of Image Analysis System Setup Calibration Principles Star Test, Slit Test Basic Setups Image Deconvolution Calibration Accuracy and Error Sources Test Targets, Visual Inspection Distortion Metrology Basic Setups Correlation Method Calibration Accuracy and Error Sources Deflectometers Basic Setups Algorithms Calibration Accuracy and Error Sources Pattern and Fringe Projectors Basic Setups Algorithms 479

6 XV Calibration Accuracy and Error Sources Literature Distance and Angle Metrology Introduction Long-range Displacement Metrology Displacement-measuring Interferometer Low-coherence Interferometers Femtosecond Frequency Combs Linear Encoders Short-range Displacement and Thickness Metrology Triangulators Confocal Sensors Coaxial Interferometric Sensors Angle and Tilt Metrology Angle Encoders Autocollimators Surface-measuring Interferometers Differential Heterodyne Laser Interferometer Combined Distance and Angle Metrology Theodolites and Total Stations Laser Trackers Optical Profile Metrology CMMs with Optical Sensors Devices Using Angle Sensors Literature Polarimetry Introduction Basic principles of Polarimetry Jones Calculus Stokes/Mueller Calculus Polarizing Elements Polarizers Retarders Compensators Depolarizers Jones and Mueller Matrix Representations of Selected Optical Components Polarimeters Measurement of the Jones vector Measurement of the Stokes Vector Measurement of the Jones Matrix Measurement of the Mueller Matrix 616

7 XVI Polarimeters and Ellipsometers Calibration Techniques Accuracy and Error Sources Literature Testing the Quality of Optical Materials Specifications Refractive Index Basics Metrology Transmittance Basics Metrology Inhomogeneity and Striae Basics Metrology Birefringence Basics Metrology Bubbles and Inclusions Basics Metrology Literature Testing the Geometry of Optical Components Specifications Radius of Curvature Basics Metrology Central Thickness Basics Metrology Surface Form and Figure Irrigularities Basics Metrology Centering Basics Metrology Diameter and Chamfer Basics Metrology Literature 779

8 XVII 54 Testing Texture and Imperfections of Optical Surfaces Specifications Surface Texture Basics Metrology Surface Imperfections Basics Metrology Literature Testing the Quality of Coatings Introduction Specifications Model Simulation Transfer-matrix Method Material Designation Graded Interfaces Surface Roughness Data Analysis Coating Metrology Basics Spectral Transmittance Spectral Reflectance Spectral Absorptance Literature System Testing Introduction System Measurement Description of System Performance Specifications Basic Parameters of Optical Systems Focal Length Focus and Image Location Principal Planes Magnification Pupil Location and Aperture Size Telecentricity Lens Positions and Adjustment Centering Measurement of Image Quality Wavefront Quality Point Spread Function PSF Axial Point Spread Function Edge Spread Function ESF 919

9 XVIII Line Spread Function LSF Analysis of Image Degradations Distortion Chromatical Aberrations Measurement of the Transfer Function Introduction Test Targets Measurement of the MTF via the Edge Spread Function Measurement of the MTF via the Line Spread Function Grating Imaging Measurement Setup Measurement of the Pupil Autocorrelation Function Special Measurement Aspects Image Quality Criteria Based on the Transfer Function Miscellaneous System Properties Transmission Spectral Transmission Illumination Distribution Ghost Images and Veiling Glare M 2 Beam Quality and Kurtosis Polarization Aberrations Literature 960 Index 967