ULTRA-WIDEBAND ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION FOR COMMUNICATIONS, RADAR AND IMAGING. Edited by. Ben Allen. Mischa Dohler. Ernest E. Okon. Wasim Q.

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ULTRA-WIDEBAND ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION FOR COMMUNICATIONS, RADAR AND IMAGING Edited by Ben Allen University of Oxford, UK Mischa Dohler France Télécom R&D, France Ernest E.

1 ULTRA-WIDEBAND ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION FOR COMMUNICATIONS, RADAR AND IMAGING Edited by Ben Allen University of Oxford, UK Mischa Dohler France Télécom R&D, France Ernest E. Okon BAE Systems Advanced Technology Centre, UK Wasim Q. Malik University of Oxford, UK Anthony K. Brown University of Manchester, UK David J. Edwards University of Oxford, UK

3 ULTRA-WIDEBAND ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION FOR COMMUNICATIONS, RADAR AND IMAGING

5 ULTRA-WIDEBAND ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION FOR COMMUNICATIONS, RADAR AND IMAGING Edited by Ben Allen University of Oxford, UK Mischa Dohler France Télécom R&D, France Ernest E. Okon BAE Systems Advanced Technology Centre, UK Wasim Q. Malik University of Oxford, UK Anthony K. Brown University of Manchester, UK David J. Edwards University of Oxford, UK

6 Copyright C 2007 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone (+44) (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or ed to permreq@wiley.co.uk, or faxed to (+44) Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA , USA Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr. 12, D Weinheim, Germany John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2 Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 6045 Freemont Blvd, Mississauga, ONT, L5R 4J3, Canada Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN (HB) ISBN (HB) Typeset in 9/11pt Times by TechBooks, New Delhi, India. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, England. This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.

7 Contents Editors Prime Contributors Preface Acknowledgments Abbreviations & Acronyms xv xvii xxi xxvii xxix 1 Introduction to UWB Signals and Systems 1 Andreas F. Molisch 1.1 History of UWB Motivation Large Absolute Bandwidth Large Relative Bandwidth UWB Signals and Systems Impulse Radio DS-CDMA OFDM Frequency Hopping RADAR Geolocation Frequency Regulation Applications, Operating Scenarios and Standardisation System Outlook 15 References 16 Part I Fundamentals 19 Introduction to Part I 21 Wasim Q. Malik and David J. Edwards 2 Fundamental Electromagnetic Theory 25 Mischa Dohler 2.1 Introduction Maxwell s Equations Differential Formulation Interpretation Key to Antennas and Propagation 27

8 vi Contents Solving Maxwell s Equations Harmonic Representation Resulting Principles 30 References 30 3 Basic Antenna Elements 31 Mischa Dohler 3.1 Introduction Hertzian Dipole Far-Field Fraunhofer Region Near-Field Fresnel Region Antenna Parameters and Terminology Polarisation Power Density Radiated Power Radiation Resistance Antenna Impedance Equivalent Circuit Antenna Matching Effective Length and Area Friis Transmission Formula Radiation Intensity Radiation Pattern (Antenna) Bandwidth Directive Gain, Directivity, Power Gain Radiation Efficiency Basic Antenna Elements Finite-Length Dipole Monopole Printed Antennas Wideband and Frequency-Independent Elements 45 References 47 4 Antenna Arrays 49 Ernest E. Okon 4.1 Introduction Point Sources Point Sources with Equal Amplitude and Phase Point Sources with Equal Amplitude and 180 Degrees Phase Difference Point Sources of Unequal Amplitude and Arbitrary Phase Difference The Principle of Pattern Multiplication Linear Arrays of n Elements Linear Broadside Arrays with Nonuniform Amplitude Distributions The Binomial Distribution The Dolph Tschebyscheff Distribution Planar Arrays Rectangular Arrays Circular Arrays 63

9 Contents vii 4.7 Design Considerations Mutual Coupling Array Gain Summary 66 References 66 5 Beamforming 67 Ben Allen 5.1 Introduction Historical Aspects Concept of Spatial Signal Processing Antenna Arrays Linear Array Circular Array Planar Array Conformal Arrays Adaptive Array Systems Spatial Filtering Adaptive Antenna Arrays Mutual Coupling and Correlation Beamforming Adaptive Antenna Technology Beam Steering Grating Lobes Amplitude Weights Window Functions Summary 86 References 87 6 Antenna Diversity Techniques 89 Junsheng Liu, Wasim Q. Malik, David J. Edwards and Mohammad Ghavami 6.1 Introduction A Review of Fading Signal Fading Channel Distribution Receive Diversity Single Branch without Diversity General Combining Schemes for Receive Diversity Maximum Ratio Combining Equal Gain Combining Selection Combining and Switched Diversity Fading Correlation Transmit Diversity Channel Unknown to the Transmitter Channel Known to the Transmitter MIMO Diversity Systems 102 References 103

10 viii Contents Part II Antennas for UWB Communications 105 Introduction to Part II 107 Ernest E. Okon 7 Theory of UWB Antenna Elements 111 Xiaodong Chen 7.1 Introduction Mechanism of UWB Monopole Antennas Basic Features of a CPW-Fed Disc Monopole Design Analysis Operating Principle of UWB Monopole Antennas Planar UWB Monopole Antennas CPW-Fed Circular Disc Monopole Microstrip Line Fed Circular Disc Monopole Other Shaped Disc Monopoles Planar UWB Slot Antennas Microstrip/CPW Feed Slot Antenna Designs Performance of Elliptical/Circular Slot Antennas Design Analysis Time-Domain Characteristics of Monopoles Time-Domain Performance of Disc Monopoles Time-Domain Performance of Slot Antenna Summary 144 Acknowledgements 144 References Antenna Elements for Impulse Radio 147 Zhi Ning Chen 8.1 Introduction UWB Antenna Classification and Design Considerations Classification of UWB Antennas Design Considerations Omnidirectional and Directional Designs Omnidirectional Roll Antenna Directional Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna Summary 160 References Planar Dipole-like Antennas for Consumer Products 163 Peter Massey 9.1 Introduction Computer Modelling and Measurement Techniques Bicone Antennas and the Lossy Transmission Line Model Planar Dipoles Bowtie Dipoles Elliptical Element Dipoles Fan Element Dipoles Diamond Dipoles 176

11 Contents ix 9.5 Practical Antennas Printed Elliptical Dipoles Line-Matched Monopoles Vivaldi Antenna Summary 194 Acknowledgements 195 References UWB Antenna Elements for Consumer Electronic Applications 197 Dirk Manteuffel 10.1 Introduction Numerical Modelling and Extraction of the UWB Characterisation FDTD Modelling UWB Antenna Characterisation by Spatio-Temporal Transfer Functions Calculation of Typical UWB Antenna Measures from the Transfer Function of the Antenna Example Antenna Design and Integration Antenna Element Design and Optimisation Antenna Integration into a DVD Player Antenna Integration into a Mobile Device Conclusion Propagation Modelling System Analysis Conclusions 218 References Ultra-wideband Arrays 221 Ernest E. Okon 11.1 Introduction Linear Arrays Broadside Array End-fire Array End-fire Array with Increased Directivity Scanning Arrays Null and Maximum Directions for Uniform Arrays Null Directions Maximum Directions Circle Representations Phased Arrays Element Spacing Required to Avoid Grating Lobes Elements for UWB Array Design Modelling Considerations Feed Configurations Active Array Passive Array Design Considerations 238

12 x Contents 11.9 Summary 239 References UWB Beamforming 241 Mohammad Ghavami and Kaveh Heidary 12.1 Introduction Basic Concept A Simple Delay-line Transmitter Wideband Array Angles of Grating Lobes Inter-null Beamwidth UWB Mono-pulse Arrays Problem Formulation Computed Results Summary 257 References 258 Part III Propagation Measurements and Modelling for UWB Communications 259 Introduction to Part III 261 Mischa Dohler and Ben Allen 13 Analysis of UWB Signal Attenuation Through Typical Building Materials 265 Domenico Porcino 13.1 Introduction A Brief Overview of Channel Characteristics The Materials Under Test Experimental Campaign Equipment Configuration Results Conclusions 281 References Large- and Medium-scale Propagation Modelling 283 Mischa Dohler, Junsheng Liu, R. Michael Buehrer, Swaroop Venkatesh and Ben Allen 14.1 Introduction Deterministic Models Free-space Pathloss Excluding the Effect of Antennas Free-space Pathloss Considering the Effect of Antennas Breakpoint Model Ray-tracing and FDTD Approaches Statistical-Empirical Models Pathloss Coefficient Shadowing Standardised Reference Models IEEE a IEEE a 304

13 Contents xi 14.5 Conclusions 306 References Small-scale Ultra-wideband Propagation Modelling 309 Swaroop Venkatesh, R. Michael Buehrer, Junsheng Liu and Mischa Dohler 15.1 Introduction Small-scale Channel Modelling Statistical Characterisation of the Channel Impulse Response Deconvolution Methods and the Clean Algorithm The Saleh-Valenzuela Model Other Temporal Models Spatial Modelling IEEE a Standard Model IEEE a Standard Model Summary 327 References Antenna Design and Propagation Measurements and Modelling for UWB Wireless BAN 331 Yang Hao, Akram Alomainy and Yan Zhao 16.1 Introduction Propagation Channel Measurements and Characteristics Antenna Element Design Requirements for WBAN Antennas for UWB Wireless BAN Applications On-Body Radio Channel Measurements Propagation Channel Characteristics WBAN Channel Modelling Radio Channel Modelling Considerations Two-Dimensional On-Body Propagation Channels Three-Dimensional On-Body Propagation Channels Pathloss Modelling UWB System-Level Modelling of Potential Body-Centric Networks System-Level Modelling Performance Analysis Summary 355 References Ultra-wideband Spatial Channel Characteristics 361 Wasim Q. Malik, Junsheng Liu, Ben Allen and David J. Edwards 17.1 Introduction Preliminaries UWB Spatial Channel Representation Characterisation Techniques Increase in the Communication Rate UWB Channel Capacity Capacity with CSIR Only 365

14 xii Contents Capacity with CSIT Statistical Characterisation Experimental Evaluation of Capacity Signal Quality Improvement UWB SNR Gain SNR Gain with CSIR Only SNR Gain with CSIT Statistical Characterisation Experimental Evaluation of Diversity Coverage Range Extension Performance Parameters Spatial Fading Correlation Eigen Spectrum Angular Spread Array Orientation Channel Memory Channel Information Quality Summary 381 References 381 Part IV UWB Radar, Imaging and Ranging 385 Introduction to Part IV 387 Anthony K. Brown 18 Localisation in NLOS Scenarios with UWB Antenna Arrays 389 Thomas Kaiser, Christiane Senger, Amr Eltaher and Bamrung Tau Sieskul 18.1 Introduction Underlying Mathematical Framework Properties of UWB Beamforming Beamloc Approach Algorithmic Framework Time-delay Estimation Simulation Results Conclusions 410 References Antennas for Ground-penetrating Radar 413 Ian Craddock 19.1 Introduction GPR Example Applications GPR for Demining Utility Location and Road Inspection Archaeology and Forensics Built-structure Imaging Analysis and GPR Design Typical GPR Configuration RF Propagation in Lossy Media 420

15 Contents xiii Radar Waveform Choice Other Antenna Design Criteria Antenna Elements Dipole, Resistively Loaded Dipole and Monopoles Bicone and Bowtie Horn Antennas Vivaldi Antenna CPW-fed Slot Antenna Spiral Antennas Antenna Measurements, Analysis and Simulation Antenna Measurement Antenna Analysis and Simulation Conclusions 433 Acknowledgements 434 References Wideband Antennas for Biomedical Imaging 437 Ian Craddock 20.1 Introduction Detection and Imaging Breast Cancer Detection Using Radio Waves Radio-wave Imaging of the Breast Waveform Choice and Antenna Design Criteria Antenna Elements Dipoles, Resistively Loaded Dipoles and Monopoles Bowtie Horn Antennas Spiral Antennas Stacked-patch Antennas Measurements, Analysis and Simulation Antenna Measurement Antenna Analysis and Simulation Conclusions 447 Acknowledgements 448 References UWB Antennas for Radar and Related Applications 451 Anthony K. Brown 21.1 Introduction Medium- and Long-Range Radar UWB Reflector Antennas Definitions Equivalent Aperture Model for Impulse Radiation Parabolic Antenna UWB Feed Designs Feed Pattern Effects Phase Centre Location Input Impedance 460

ULTRA-WIDEBAND ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION FOR COMMUNICATIONS, RADAR AND IMAGING. Edited by. Ben Allen. Mischa Dohler France Telecom R&D, France

ULTRA-WIDEBAND ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION FOR COMMUNICATIONS, RADAR AND IMAGING Edited by Ben Allen University of Oxford, UK Mischa Dohler France Telecom R&D, France Ernest E. Okon BAE Systems Advanced Technology