Aeronautical Radio Communication Systems and Networks

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1 Aeronautical Radio Communication Systems and Networks Dale Stacey John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

3 Aeronautical Radio Communication Systems and Networks

5 Aeronautical Radio Communication Systems and Networks Dale Stacey John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

6 Copyright C 2008 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone (+44) (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or ed to permreq@wiley.co.uk, or faxed to (+44) Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA , USA Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr. 12, D Weinheim, Germany John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2 Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 6045 Freemont Blvd, Mississauga, ONT, Canada L5R 4J3 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN (HB) Typeset in 10/12pt Times by TechBooks, New Delhi, India. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.

7 Contents Preface Dedications About the Author Revisions, Corrections, Updates, Liability Book Layout and Structure xvii xviii xviii xix xix 1 Introduction The Legacy Today and the Second Generation of Equipment The Future Operational and User Changes Radio Spectrum Used by Aviation Convergence, Spectrum Sharing Discussion of the Organizational Structure of Aviation Communications Disciplines International Bodies Example National Bodies Industrial Interests Example Standards Bodies and Professional Engineering Bodies Users/Operators 8 2 Theory Governing Aeronautical Radio Systems 9 Summary Basic Definitions Notations and Units Propagation Fundamentals Electromagnetic Vectors Polarization Speed of Propagation and Relationship to Wavelength and Frequency Power, Amplitudes and the Decibel Scale The Isotropic Power Source and Free Space Path Loss Definition of Isotropic Derivation of Free Space Path Loss Equation 15

8 vi CONTENTS Power Flux Density Electric Field Strength Relationship Between Field Strength and Transmitted Power Radio Geometry Radio Horizon Calculations Earth Bulge Factor k Factor Nautical Mile Great-circle Distances Complex Propagation: Refraction, Absorption, Non-LOS Propagation Refraction Layer Refraction Obstacle Refraction Attenuation from Atmosphere Absorption Water Absorption Oxygen Absorption and Other Gases Non-LOS Propagation Propagation Ground Wave Reflection and Multipath Propagation Sky Wave Propagation to Satellite Propagation Distance Atmospheric Losses Other Propagation Effects The Doppler Effect Example Answer Modulation The Modulation Conundrum The Analogue and Digital Domains Amplitude Modulation (AM) DSB-AM The VHF Aeronautical Mobile Communications (Route) Service (AM(R)S) Single Sideband (SSB) Modulation The Aeronautical HF System and Other SSB Systems Suppressed Carrier Double Side Band AM Frequency Modulation Capture Effect (Hysteresis) Digital Modulation Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Amplitude Modulated Minimum Shift Keying (AM MSK) Baud/Bit Rate and M-ary ASK Bipolar and Differential Frequency Shift Keying Phase Shift Keying Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) and Trellis Code Modulation (TCM) 58

9 CONTENTS vii Trellis Code Modulation Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK) Shannon s Theory Non-Errorless Transmission Multiplexing and Trunking Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Trunking Example Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Coded OFDM Access Schemes Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) CDMA Principles Frequency Domain Duplex (FDD) and Time Domain Duplex (TDD) CDMA Applications Mitigation Techniques for Fading and Multipath Equalization Forward Error Correction and Cyclic Redundancy Checking Interleaving Space Diversity Frequency Diversity Passive Receiver Diversity Bandwidth Normalization Antenna Gain Ideal Isotropic Antenna Practical Realizations Some Common Antennas Used for Aeronautical Communications The Dipole The Folded Dipole Quarter-Wave Vertical Antenna /8 λ Vertical Antenna Yagi Antenna Log Periodic Antenna Parabolic Dish Antennas The Link Budget Intermodulation Third-order, Unwanted Harmonics Higher Order Harmonics Noise in a Communication System Thermal Noise Natural Noise Man-made Noise and Interference Sky Noise 93

10 viii CONTENTS 2.18 Satellite Theory Extended Noise Equation G/T The Link Budget Equation Noise Temperatures Receiver Side of the Reference Point Antenna Side of the Reference Point Availability and Reliability Definitions The Reliability Bathtub Curve Some Reliability Concepts Overall Availability of a Multicomponent System Serial Chain Parallel Chain The Reliability Block Diagram 102 Further Reading VHF Communication 105 Summary History The Legacy Pre to Present, Channelization and Band Splitting Channel Splitting Today and 8.33 khz Channelization Into the Future (Circa 2006 Plus) DSB-AM Transceiver at a System Level System Design Features of AM(R)S DSB-AM System Availability and Reliability RF Unbalance System Specification Dimensioning a Mobile Communications System The Three Cs Coverage Voting Networks and Extended Coverage Capacity Cwality (Quality) Regulatory and Licensing Aspects The Three As Allocation Allotment Assignment Utilization Profile VHF Hardening and Intermodulation Receiver Swamping Intermodulation The VHF Datalink Limitations with VHF Voice The History of Datalink 127

11 CONTENTS ix System-Level Technical Description ACARS/VDL0/VDLA VDL VDL VDL Mode VDL Overview of the Modes A Comparison Services over Datalink Future Data Applications 140 Further Reading Military Communication Systems 145 Summary Military VHF Communications The Legacy After the Legacy The Shortfalls of the Military VHF Communication System The Requirement for a New Tactical Military System The Birth of JTIDS/MIDS Technical Definitionof JTIDS and MIDS Channelization Link 4A Air Interface Link-11 Air Interface Link 16 Air Interface Access Methods Link 16 Data Exchange Jitter Synchronization Sychronization Stack Header Data Packing Standard Double Pulse Format Packed 2 Single Pulse Format Packed 2 Double Pulse Format Packed 4 Single Pulse Format Other Salient Features of JTIDS/MIDS Overlay with DME Band Long-Distance Mobile Communications 157 Summary High-Frequency Radio The Legacy Allocation and Allotment HF System Features Transmitter Receiver System Configuration Selective Calling (SELCAL) Channel Availability 160

12 x CONTENTS 5.4 HF Datalink System Protocol Deployment Applications of Aeronautical HF Mobile Satellite Communications Introduction Geostationary Satellite Systems Low-Earth Orbit Satellite Systems Medium-Earth Orbit Satellite System Geostationary Services System Detail The AMS(R)S Satellite System Antenna System Specifications Satellite Antenna Figure of Merit (G/T) Antenna Discrimination Rx Thresholds Tx EIRP Limits Comparison Between VHF, HF, L Band (JTIDS/MIDS) and Satellite Mobile Communications Aeronautical Passenger Communications 175 Further Reading Aeronautical Telemetry Systems 177 Summary Introduction The Legacy Existing Systems A Typical Telemetry System Layout Transmitter Side (On-board Aircraft Components) Receiver Side (High-performance Ground Station) On-board System Duplication and Ground Backhaul Infrastructure Telecontrol Productivity and Applications Proposed Airbus Future Telemetry System Channelization Plan System Components Telemetry Downlink Telecommand Uplink Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Terrestrial Backhaul and the Aeronautical Telecommunications Network 187 Summary Introduction Types of Point-to-point Bearers Copper Cables Frequency Division Multiplex Stacks Newer Digital Connections and the Pulse Code Modulation Synchronous Digital Hierarchy, Asynchronous Transfer Mode and Internet Protocol 191

13 CONTENTS xi Fibre Optic Private Networks and the Aeronautical Telecommunications Networks PTT-Offered Services Radio Links Fixed Radio Link Design VSAT Networks VSAT Radio Link Budget Hybrid Network Future Aeronautical Mobile Communication Systems 201 Summary Introduction Near-term Certainties Universal Access Transceiver Frame Structure UAT Transceiver Specification UAT Modes of Operation Message Types Application and Limitation of UAT Further Reading Mode S Extended Squitter Mode S Introduction Pulse Interrogations and Replies Further Reading xx Family Specification Application and Limitations Longer Term Options Analysis Answer The Definition Conundrum The Requirements or the Operational Scenario Technology Options and Frequency Band Spectrum Requirements A Proposal for a CDMA-based Communication System Software Defined Radio 217 Further Reading The Economics of Radio 221 Summary Introduction Basic Rules of Economics Analysis and the Break-even Point The Cost of Money Some Basic Financial Concepts Inflation 224

14 xii CONTENTS 9.5 The Safety Case Reliability Cost Macroeconomics Ground Installations and Equipment 229 Summary Introduction Environment Indoor Environment Outdoor Environment Practical Equipment VHF Communication Band ( MHz) VHF Transmitters VHF Receivers VHF Transmitter/Receiver Configurations VHF Single-channel Dual Simplex Station Site Configuration VHF Multichannel, Duplicated Base Station VHF Cavity Filters VHF Combiner, Multicouplers, Switches and Splitters Other Radio Equipment HF Microwave Point-to-point Equipment Satellite Equipment Voice/Data Termination, Multiplex and Other Line-terminating Equipment Future Communication Equipment Peripheral Equipment Mains/AC Service DC Supplies Heating Ventilation, Air Conditioning Pressurization Outdoor Transmission Lines (VHF, L Band and Microwave) Antenna Engineering Antenna Location and Application Antenna Selection Alignment and Optimization Practical Antennas Towers or Masts Equipment Room Equipment Racks Avionics 259 Summary Introduction Environment 259

15 CONTENTS xiii Temperature Outside Interior Pressure External Pressure Internal Pressure Equipment Testing Apparent Wind Speed Humidity: % External Internal General RF Environment, Immunity, EMC Environmental Classification Types of Aircraft Private Aircraft General Aviation Commercial Aviation Military Aviation Simple Avionics for Private Aviation The Distributed Avionics Concept Data Bus Standards ARINC 429 Standard ARINC 629 Standard ARINC Fibre-distributed Data Interface (FDDI) Power Supply System Power Subsystem on an Aircraft Example The Boeing V DC Flight Management System Monitoring of Circuit Breakers Avionic Racking Arrangements ATR and MCU Cooling Back Plane Wiring Index Pin Code Other Standards Avionic Boxes VHF Transceivers Transmitter Specification Receiver Specification Navigation Communication Control Panel HF Radios Technical Specification Transmitter HF Physical Specification Power 290