Robert G. Hunsperger. Integrated Optics. Theory and Technology. Sixth Edition. 4ü Spri rineer g<

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1 Robert G. Hunsperger Integrated Optics Theory and Technology Sixth Edition 4ü Spri rineer g<

1 Introduction 1 1.1 Advantages of Integrated Optics 2 1.1.1 Comparison of Optical Fibers with Other Interconnectors 3 1.1.2 Comparison of Optical Integrated Circuits with Electrical Integrated Circuits 7 1.

2 1 Introduction Advantages of Integrated Optics Comparison of Optical Fibers with Other Interconnectors Comparison of Optical Integrated Circuits with Electrical Integrated Circuits Substrate Materials for Optical Integrated Circuits Hybrid Versus Monolithic Approach III-V and II-VI Ternary Systems Hybrid OIC's in LiNb Organization of this Book 12 Problems 15 References 15 2 Optical Waveguide Modes Modes in a Planar Waveguide Structure Theoretical Description of the Modes of a Three-Layer Planar Waveguide Cutoff Conditions Experimental Observation of Waveguide Modes The Ray-Optic Approach to Optical Mode Theory Ray Patterns in the Three-Layer Planar Waveguide The Discrete Nature of the Propagation Constant ß 28 Problems 30 References 31 3 Theory of Optical Waveguides Planar Waveguides The Basic Three-Layer Planar Waveguide The Symmetric Waveguide The Asymmetric Waveguide 38 XIX

xx 3.2 Rectangular Waveguides 39 3.2.1 Channel Waveguides 40 3.2.2 Strip-Loaded Waveguides 45 Problems 48 References 49 4 Waveguide Fabrication Techniques 53 4.1 Deposited Thin Films 53 4.1.1 Sputtered Dielectric Films 53 4.

3 xx 3.2 Rectangular Waveguides Channel Waveguides Strip-Loaded Waveguides 45 Problems 48 References 49 4 Waveguide Fabrication Techniques Deposited Thin Films Sputtered Dielectric Films Deposition from Solutions Organosilicon Films Substitutional Dopant Atoms Diffused Dopants Ion Exchange and Migration Ion Implantation Carrier-Concentration-Reduction Waveguides Basic Properties of Carrier-Concentration-Reduction Waveguides Carrier Removal by Proton Bombardment Epitaxial Growth Basic Properties of Epitaxially Grown Waveguides Ga(l x)alxas Epitaxially Grown Waveguides Epitaxial Waveguides in Other III-V and II-VI and IV Materials Molecular Beam Epitaxy Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition Electro-Optic Waveguides Oxidation Methods for Fabricating Channel Waveguides Ridged Waveguides Formed by Etching Strip-Loaded Waveguides Masked Ion Implantation, Diffusion or Ion Exchange Focused Beam Writing Techniques 78 Problems 79 References 81 5 Polymer and Fiber Integrated Optics Types of Polymers Polymer Processing Processing of Polystyrene Processing of Polyimide Post-Deposition Processing Applications of Polymer Waveguide Interconnections Polymer Waveguide Devices Passive Polymer Devices Active Polymer Devices 96

xxi 5.5 Optical Fiber Waveguide Devices 98 Problems 103 References 104 6 Losses in Optical Waveguides 107 6.1 Scattering Losses 107 6.1.1 Surface Scattering Loss 108 6.2 Absorption Losses 110 6.2.1 Interband Absorption 110 6.

4 xxi 5.5 Optical Fiber Waveguide Devices 98 Problems 103 References Losses in Optical Waveguides Scattering Losses Surface Scattering Loss Absorption Losses Interband Absorption Free Carrier Absorption Radiation Losses Radiation Loss from Planar and Straight Channel Waveguides Radiation Loss from Curved Channel Waveguides Measurement of Waveguide Losses End-Fire Coupling to Waveguides of Different Length Prism-Coupled Loss Measurements Scattering Loss Measurements 123 Problems 125 References Waveguide Input and Output Couplers Fundamentals of Optical Coupling Transverse Couplers Direct Focusing End-Butt Coupling Prism Couplers Grating Couplers Basic Theory of the Grating Coupler Grating Fabrication Tapered Couplers Tapered Mode Size Converters Fiber to Waveguide Couplers Butt Coupling High Density Multifiber Connectors 148 Problems 149 References Coupling Between Waveguides Multilayer Planar Waveguide Couplers Dual-Channel Directional Couplers Operating Characteristics of the Dual-Channel Coupler Coupled-Mode Theory of Synchronous Coupling 157

xxii 8.2.3 Methods of Fabricating Dual-Channel Directional Couplers 160 8.2.4 Applications Involving Directional Couplers 164 8.3 Butt-Coupled Ridge Waveguides 164 8.

5 xxii Methods of Fabricating Dual-Channel Directional Couplers Applications Involving Directional Couplers Butt-Coupled Ridge Waveguides Branching Waveguide Couplers Optical Fiber Couplers and Splitters 166 Problems 167 References Electro-Optic Modulators Basic Operating Characteristics of Switches and Modulators Modulation Depth Bandwidth Insertion Loss Power Consumption Isolation The Electro-Optic Effect Single-Waveguide Electro-Optic Modulators Phase Modulation Polarization Modulation Intensity Modulation Electro-Absorption Modulation Dual-Channel Waveguide Electro-Optic Modulators Theory of Operation Operating Characteristics of Dual-Channel Modulators Mach-Zehnder Type Electro-Optic Modulators Electro-Optic Modulators Employing Reflection or Diffraction Bragg-Effect Electro-Optic Modulators Electro-Optic Reflection Modulators Comparison of Waveguide Modulators to Bulk Electro-Optic Modulators Traveling Wave Electrode Configurations 193 Problems 195 References Acousto-Optic Modulators Fundamental Principles of the Acousto-Optic Effect Raman-Nath-Type Modulators Bragg-Type Modulators Bragg-Type Beam Deflectors and Switches Performance Characteristics of Acoustic-Optic Modulators and Beam Deflectors Accusto-Optic Frequency Shifters 214 Problems 217 References 219

xxiii 11 Basic Principles of Light Emission in Semiconductors 221 11.1 A Microscopic Model for Light Generation and Absorption in a Crystalline Solid 221 11.1.1 Basic Definitions 221 11.1.2 Conservation of Energy and Momentum 224 11.

6 xxiii 11 Basic Principles of Light Emission in Semiconductors A Microscopic Model for Light Generation and Absorption in a Crystalline Solid Basic Definitions Conservation of Energy and Momentum Light Emission in Semiconductors Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission Lasing Semiconductor Laser Structures Lasing Threshold Efficiency of Light Emission 237 Problems 238 References Semiconductor Lasers The Laser Diode Basic Structure Optical Modes Lasing Threshold Conditions Output Power and Efficiency The Tunnel-Injection Laser Basic Structure Lasing Threshold Conditions Polymer Lasers New Semiconductor Materials for New Wavelengths Gallium Nitride Lasers Silicon Lasers 254 Problems 255 References 257 Supplementary Reading on Semiconductor-Laser Fundamentals Optical Amplifiers Optical Fiber Amplifiers Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers Raman Optical Fiber Amplifiers Other Optical Fiber Amplifiers Non-Fiber Ion-Doped Optical Amplifiers Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers Integrated Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers Comparison of Ion-Doped Fiber Amplifiers with SOAs Wavelength Range Performance Characteristics Gain Equalization Fiber Lasers 271

xxiv Problems 273 References 274 Supplementary Reading on Optical Amplifiers 275 14 Heterostructure, Confined-Field Lasers 277 14.1 Basic Heterojunction Laser Structures 278 14.1.1 Single Heterojunction (SH) Lasers 278 14.

7 xxiv Problems 273 References 274 Supplementary Reading on Optical Amplifiers Heterostructure, Confined-Field Lasers Basic Heterojunction Laser Structures Single Heterojunction (SH) Lasers Double Heterostructure (DH) Lasers Performance Characteristics of the Heterojunction Laser Optical Field Confinement Carrier Confinement Comparison of Laser Emission Characteristics Control of Emitted Wavelength Ga(i_ X )Al x As Lasers for Fiber-Optic Applications Lasers Made of Quaternary Materials Long-Wavelength Lasers Advanced Heterojunction Laser Structures Stripe Geometry Lasers Single-Mode Lasers Integrated Laser Structures Reliability Catastrophic Failure Gradual Degradation Vertical Cavity Lasers 296 Problems 298 References 299 Supplementary Reading on Heterojunction Lasers Distributed-Feedback Lasers Theoretical Considerations Wavelength Dependence of Bragg Reflections Coupling Efficiency Lasing with Distributed Feedback Fabrication Techniques Effects of Lattice Damage Grating Location DBR Lasers Performance Characteristics Wavelength Selectability Optical Emission Linewidth Stability Commercially Available DFB Lasers Nanoscale DFB Lasers Semiconductor Air Bragg Reflector Lasers Quantum Dot DFB Lasers 321

xxv Problems 321 References 322 16 Direct Modulation of Semiconductor Lasers 325 16.1 Basic Principles of Direct Modulation 325 16.1.1 Amplitude Modulation 325 16.1.2 Pulse Modulation 328 16.1.3 Frequency Modulation 330 16.

8 xxv Problems 321 References Direct Modulation of Semiconductor Lasers Basic Principles of Direct Modulation Amplitude Modulation Pulse Modulation Frequency Modulation Microwave Frequency Modulation of Laser Diodes Summary of Early Experimental Results Factors Limiting Modulation Frequency Design of Laser Diode Packages for Microwave Modulation Monolithically Integrated Direct Modulators Amplified Laser Modulation Direct Modulation of Quantum Dot Lasers Future Prospects for Microwave Modulation of Laser Diodes 340 Problems 340 References 342 Supplementary Reading on Modulation of Laser Diodes Integrated Optical Detectors Depletion Layer Photodiodes Conventional Discrete Photodiodes Waveguide Photodiodes Effects of Scattering and Free-Carrier Absorption Specialized Photodiode Structures Schottky-Barrier Photodiode Avalanche Photodiodes p-i-n Photodiodes Metal-Semiconductor-Metal Photodiodes Techniques for Modifying Spectral Response Hybrid Structures Heteroepitaxial Growth Proton Bombardment Electro-Absorption Factors Limiting Performance of Integrated Detectors High Frequency Cutoff Linearity Noise 367 Problems 368 References 371

xxvi 18 Quantum-Well Devices 375 18.1 Quantum Wells and Superlattices 375 18.2 Quantum-Well Lasers 377 18.2.1 Single-Quantum-Well Lasers 377 18.2.2 Multiple Quantum Well Lasers 380 18.

9 xxvi 18 Quantum-Well Devices Quantum Wells and Superlattices Quantum-Well Lasers Single-Quantum-Well Lasers Multiple Quantum Well Lasers Quantum-Well Modulators and Switches Electro-Absorption Modulators Electro-Optic Effect in Quantum Wells Multiple Quantum Well Switches Quantum-Well Detectors Photoconductive Detectors MQW Avalanche Photodiodes Self-Electro-Optic Effect Devices Quantum-Well Devices in OEIC's Integrated Laser/Modulators A Four-Channel Transmitter Array with MQW Lasers 396 Problems 398 References 399 Supplementary Reading on Quantum Wells Micro-Optical-Electro-Mechanical Devices Basic Equations of Mechanics Axial Stress and Strain Thin Membranes Cantilever Beams Torsion Plates Thin Membrane Devices Cantilever Beam Devices Torsional Devices Optical Elements Future Directions in MOEMS Development Mechanical Properties of Silicon 419 Problems 419 References Applications of Integrated Optics and Current Trends Applications of Optical Integrated Circuits RF Spectrum Analyzer Monolithic Wavelength-Multiplexed Optical Source Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) Integrated-Optic Doppler Velocimeter An IO Optical Disk Readhead OIC Temperature Sensor IO High Voltage Sensor 433

xxvii 20.1.8 IO Wavelength Meters and Spectrum Analyzers 434 20.1.9 IO Chemical Sensors 435 20.2 Opto-Electronic Integrated Circuits 436 20.2.1 An OEIC Transmitter 436 20.2.2 An OEIC Receiver 437 20.

10 xxvii IO Wavelength Meters and Spectrum Analyzers IO Chemical Sensors Opto-Electronic Integrated Circuits An OEIC Transmitter An OEIC Receiver An OEIC Phased-Array Antenna Driver Devices and Systems for Telecommunications Trends in Optical Telecommunications New Devices for Telecommunications 444 Problems 447 References Photonic and Microwave Wireless Systems Merging of Photonics and Microwave Technology Fiber-Optic Transmission of RF and Microwave Signals Basic Principles Device Performance System Performance Microwave Carrier Generation by Optical Techniques Future Projections 463 Problems 464 References Nanophotonics Dimensions Properties of Electrons and Photons Confinement of Photons and Electrons Photonic Crystals Classes of Photonic Crystals Comparison of Electrons in Semiconductor Crystals to Photons in Photonic Crystals Fabrication of Nanostructures Molecular Beam Epitaxy Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy Nanoscale Lithography Nanomachining Characterization and Evaluation of Nanostructures Available Tools Scanning Electron Microscope Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction Nanophotonic Devices Waveguides Couplers Resonators Light Emitters 495

11 xxviii Photodetectors Sensors Future Projections for Integrated Optics and Nanophotonics 499 Problems 501 References 501 Index 507

Optical Fibers p. 1 Basic Concepts p. 1 Step-Index Fibers p. 2 Graded-Index Fibers p. 4 Design and Fabrication p. 6 Silica Fibers p.

Preface p. xiii Optical Fibers p. 1 Basic Concepts p. 1 Step-Index Fibers p. 2 Graded-Index Fibers p. 4 Design and Fabrication p. 6 Silica Fibers p. 6 Plastic Optical Fibers p. 9 Microstructure Optical