CONTENTS. 2.2 Schrodinger's Wave Equation 31. PART I Semiconductor Material Properties. 2.3 Applications of Schrodinger's Wave Equation 34

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1 CONTENTS Preface x Prologue Semiconductors and the Integrated Circuit xvii PART I Semiconductor Material Properties CHAPTER 1 The Crystal Structure of Solids Preview Semiconductor Materials Types of Solids Space Lattices Primitive and Unit Cell Basic Crystal Structures Crystal Planes and Miller Indices Directions in Crystals The Diamond Structure Atomic Bonding 12 *1.6 Imperfections and Impurities in Solids Imperfections in Solids Impurities in Solids 16 *1.7 Growth of Semiconductor Materials Growth from a Melt Epitaxial Growth Summary 20 Problems 21 CHAPTER 2 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics Preview Principles of Quantum Mechanics Energy Quanta Wave-Particle Duality The Uncertainty Principle Schrodinger's Wave Equation The Wave Equation Physical Meaning of the Wave Function Boundary Conditions Applications of Schrodinger's Wave Equation Electron in Free Space The Infinite Potential Well The Step Potential Function The Potential Barrier and Tunneling Extensions of the Wave Theory to Atoms The One-Electron Atom The Periodic Table Summary 51 Problems 52 CHAPTER 3 Introduction to the Quantum Theory of Solids Preview Allowed and Forbidden Energy Bands Formation of Energy Bands 59 *3.1.2 The Kronig-Penney Model The k-space Diagram Electrical Conduction in Solids The Energy Band and the Bond Model Drift Current Electron Effective Mass Concept of the Hole Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors Extension to Three Dimensions The k-space Diagrams of Si and GaAs Additional Effective Mass Concepts 85 iv

2 Contents v 3.4 Density of States Function Mathematical Derivation Extension to Semiconductors Statistical Mechanics Statistical Laws The Fermi-Dirac Probability Function The Distribution Function and the Fermi Energy Summary 98 Problems 100 CHAPTER 4 The Semiconductor in Equilibrium Preview Charge Carriers in Semiconductors Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes The no and p a Equations The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels Qualitative Description Ionization Energy Group III-V Semiconductors The Extrinsic Semiconductor Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes The n 0 po Product 127 *4.3.3 The Fermi-Dirac Integral Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors Statistics of Donors and Acceptors Probability Function Complete Ionization and Freeze-Out Charge Neutrality Compensated Semiconductors Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations Position of Fermi Energy Level Mathematical Derivation Variation ofe F with Doping Concentration and Temperature Relevance of the Fermi Energy Summary 147 Problems 149 CHAPTER 5 Carrier Transport Phenomena Preview Carrier Drift Drift Current Density Mobility Effects Conductivity Velocity Saturation Carrier Diffusion Diffusion Current Density Total Current Density Graded Impurity Distribution Induced Electric Field The Einstein Relation 178 *5.4 The Hall Effect Summary 183 Problems 184 CHAPTER 6 Nonequilibrium Excess Carriers in Semiconductors Preview Carrier Generation and Recombination The Semiconductor in Equilibrium Excess Carrier Generation and Recombination Characteristics of Excess Carriers Continuity Equations Time-Dependent Diffusion Equations Ambipolar Transport Derivation of the Ambipolar Transport Equation Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection Applications of the Ambipolar Transport Equation Dielectric Relaxation Time Constant 214 *6.3.5 Haynes-Shockley Experiment 216

3 vi Contents 6.4 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels 219 *6.5 Excess Carrier Lifetime Shockley-Read-Hall Theory of Recombination Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection 225 *6.6 Surface Effects Surface States Surface Recombination Velocity Summary 231 Problems 233 PART II Fundamental Semiconductor Devices CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction Preview Basic Structure of the pn Junction Zero Applied Bias Built-in Potential Barrier Electric Field Space Charge Width Reverse Applied Bias Space Charge Width and Electric Field Junction Capacitance One-Sided Junctions Junction Breakdown 258 *7.5 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions Linearly Graded Junctions Hyperabrupt Junctions 265 7,6 Summary 267 Problems 269 CHAPTER 8 The pn Junction Diode Preview pn Junction Current Qualitative Description of Charge Flow in a pn Junction Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship Boundary Conditions Minority Carrier Distribution Ideal pn Junction Current Summary of Physics Temperature Effects The "Short" Diode Generation-Recombination Currents and High-Injection Levels Generation-Recombination Currents High-Level Injection Small-Signal Model of the pn Junction Diffusion Resistance Small-Signal Admittance Equivalent Circuit 313 *8.4 Charge Storage and Diode Transients The Turn-off Transient The Turn-on Transient 317 *8.5 The Tunnel Diode Summary 321 Problems 323 CHAPTER 9 Metal-Semiconductor and Semiconductor Heterojunctions Preview The Schottky Barrier Diode Qualitative Characteristics Ideal Junction Properties Nonideal Effects on the Barrier Height Current-Voltage Relationship Comparison of the Schottky Barrier Diode and the pn Junction Diode Metal-Semiconductor Ohmic Contacts Ideal Nonrectifying Barrier Tunneling Barrier Specific Contact Resistance Heterojunctions Heterojunction Materials Energy-Band Diagrams Two-Dimensional Electron Gas 356 *9.3.4 Equilibrium Electrostatics 358 *9.3.5 Current-Voltage Characteristics 363

4 Contents vii 9.4 Summary 363 Problems 365 CHAPTER 10 Fundamentals of the Metal-Oxide- Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor Preview The Two-Terminal MOS Structure Energy-Band Diagrams Depletion Layer Thickness Surface Charge Density Work Function Differences Flat-Band Voltage Threshold Voltage Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics Ideal C-V Characteristics Frequency Effects Fixed Oxide and Interface Charge Effects The Basic MOSFET Operation MOSFET Structures Current-Voltage Relationship Concepts 404 * Current-Voltage Relationship Mathematical Derivation Transconductance Substrate Bias Effects Frequency Limitations Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency 425 *10.5 The CMOS Technology Summary 430 Problems 433 CHAPTER 11 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor: Additional Concepts Preview Nonideal Effects Subthreshold Conduction Channel Length Modulation Mobility Variation Velocity Saturation Ballistic Transport MOSFET Scaling Constant-Field Scaling Threshold Voltage First Approximation Generalized Scaling Threshold Voltage Modifications Short-Channel Effects Narrow-Channel Effects Additional Electrical Characteristics Breakdown Voltage 464 HI.4.2 The Lightly Doped Drain Transistor Threshold Adjustment by Ion Implantation 472 *11.5 Radiation and Hot-Electron Effects Radiation-Induced Oxide Charge Radiation-Induced Interface States Hot-Electron Charging Effects Summary 481 Problems 483 CHAPTER 12 The Bipolar Transistor Preview The Bipolar Transistor Action The Basic Principle of Operation Simplified Transistor Current Relation Qualitative Discussion The Modes of Operation Amplification with Bipolar Transistors Minority Carrier Distribution Forward-Active Mode Other Modes of Operation Transistor Currents and Low-Frequency Common-Base Current Gain Current Gain Contributing Factors Derivation of Transistor Current Components and Current Gain Factors 512

5 viii Contents Summary Example Calculations of the Gain Factors Nonideal Effects Base Width Modulation High Injection Emitter Bandgap Narrowing Current Crowding 528 * Nonuniform Base Doping Breakdown Voltage Equivalent Circuit Models 536 * Ebers-Moll Model Gummel-Poon Model Hybrid-Pi Model Frequency Limitations Time-Delay Factors Transistor Cutoff Frequency Large-Signal Switching Switching Characteristics The Schottky-Clamped Transistor 551 *12.8 Other Bipolar Transistor Structures Polysilicon Emitter BJT Silicon-Germanium Base Transistor Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors Summary 558 Problems 560 CHAPTER 13 The Junction Field-Effect Transistor Preview JFET Concepts Basic pn JFET Operation Basic MESFET Operation The Device Characteristics Internal Pinchoff Voltage, Pinchoff Voltage, and Drain-to-Source Saturation Voltage Ideal DC Current-Voltage Relationship Depletion Mode JFET Transconductance The MESFET 588 *13.3 Nonideal Effects Channel Length Modulation Velocity Saturation Effects Subthreshold and Gate Current Effects 596 *13.4 Equivalent Circuit and Frequency Limitations Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Frequency Limitation Factors and Cutoff Frequency 600 *13.5 High Electron Mobility Transistor Quantum Well Structures Transistor Performance Summary 609 Problems 611 PART III Specialized Semiconductor Devices CHAPTER 14 Optical Devices Preview Optical Absorption Photon Absorption Coefficient Electron-Hole Pair Generation Rate Solar Cells The pn Junction Solar Cell Conversion Efficiency and Solar Concentration Nonuniform Absorption Effects The Heterojunction Solar Cell Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells Photodetectors Photoconductor Photodiode PIN Photodiode Avalanche Photodiode Phototransistor Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence Basic Transitions Luminescent Efficiency Materials 646

6 Contents ix 14.5 Light Emitting Diodes Generation of Light Internal Quantum Efficiency External Quantum Efficiency LED Devices Laser Diodes Stimulated Emission and Population Inversion Optical Cavity Threshold Current Device Structures and Characteristics Summary 661 Problems 664 CHAPTER 15 Semiconductor Microwave and Power Devices Preview Tunnel Diode Gunn Diode Impatt Diode Power Bipolar Transistors Vertical Power Transistor Structure Power Transistor Characteristics Darlington Pair Configuration Power MOSFETs Power Transistor Structures Power MOSFET Characteristics Parasitic BJT The Thyristor The Basic Characteristics Triggering the SCR SCR Turn-Off Device Structures Summary 701 Problems 703 A Selected List of Symbols 707 B System of Units, Conversion Factors, and General Constants 715 The Periodic Table 719 C D Unit of Energy The Electron Volt 720 E "Derivation" of Schrodinger's Wave Equation 722 F Effective Mass Concepts 724 The Error Function 729 G H Answers to Selected Problems 730 Index 738

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