SMART SENSOR SYSTEMS. WILEY A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, Publication. Edited by. Gerard CM. Meijer

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1 SMART SENSOR SYSTEMS Edited by Gerard CM. Meijer Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands SensArt, Delft, the Netherlands WILEY A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, Publication

2 Preface About the Authors xiii xv 1 Smart Sensor Systems: Why? Where? How? 1 Johan H. Huijsing 1.1 Third Industrial Revolution Definitions for Several Kinds of Sensors Definition of Sensors Definition of Smart Sensors Definition of Integrated Smart Sensors 9 /.2.4 Definition of Integrated Smart Sensor Systems Automated Production Machines Automated Consumer Products Smart Cars Smart Homes Smart Domestic Appliances Smart Toys Conclusion 21 References 21 2 Interface Electronics and Measurement Techniques for Smart Sensor Systems 23 Gerard CM. Meijer 2.1 Introduction Object-oriented Design of Sensor Systems Sensing Elements and Their Parasitic Effects Compatibility of Packaging Effect of Cable and Wire Impedances Parasitic and Cross-effects in Sensing Elements Excitation Signals for Sensing Elements Analog-to-digital Conversion High Accuracy Over a Wide Dynamic Range Systematic, Random and Multi-path Errors Advanced Chopping Techniques Autocalibration 36

3 2.5.4 Dynamic Amplification Dynamic Division and Other Dynamic Signal-processing Techniques 40 6 A Universal Transducer Interface Description of the Interface Chip and the Applied Measurement Techniques Realization and Experimental Results 47-7 Summary and Future Trends Summary Future Trends 51 Problems 51 References 54 Silicon Sensors: An Introduction 55 Paddy J. French 1 Introduction 55 2 Measurement and Control Systems 55 3 Transducers Form of Signal-carrying Energy Signal Conversion in Transducers Smart Silicon Sensors Self-generating and Modulating Transducers 63 4 Transducer Technologies Introduction Generic Nonsilicon Technologies Silicon 66 5 Examples of Silicon Sensors Radiation Domain Mechanical Domain Thermal Domain Magnetic Domain Chemical Domain 74 6 Summary and Future Trends Summary Future Trends 75 References 76 Optical Sensors Based on Photon Detection 79 Reinoud F. Wolffenbuttel 1 Introduction 79 2 Photon Absorption in Silicon 81 3 The Interface: Photon Transmission Into Silicon 84 4 Photon Detection in Silicon Photoconductors Photoconductors in Silicon: Operation and Static Performance Photoconductors in Silicon: Dynamic Performance 93 5 Photon Detection in Silicon pn Junctions Defining the Depletion Layer at a pn Junction Electron-hole Collection in the Depletion Layer 97

4 vii Electron-hole Collection in the Substrate Electron-hole Collection Close to the Surface Backside-illuminated Pin Photodiode Electron-hole Collection in Two Stacked pn Junctions Detection Limit Noise in the Optical Signal Photon Detector Noise Photon Detector Readout Photon Detectors with Gain The Phototransistor The Avalanche Photodiode Time Integration of Photon-generated Charge Application Examples Color Sensor in CMOS Optical Microspectrometer in CMOS Summary and Future Trends Summary Future Trends 118 Problems 119 References Physical Chemosensors 121 Michael J. Vellekoop 5.1 Introduction Thin-film Chemical Interfaces Total Analysis Systems Physical Chemosensing Energy Domains Examples and Applications Examples of in situ Applications Blood Oximeter Thermal Conductivity Detector Engine Oil Monitoring System Oil-condition Sensor Based on Infrared Measurements Electronic Nose Microfluidics Devices Projection Cytometer Coulter Counter Dielectrophoresis-based Devices High-throughput Screening Arrays \AA Contactless Conductivity Detection in CE Conclusions 146 Problems 147 References 147

5 viii Contents 6 Thermal Sensors 151 Sander (A.W.) van Herwaarden 6.1 The Functional Principle of Thermal Sensors Self-generating Thermal-power Sensors Modulating Thermal-conductance Sensors Heat Transfer Mechanisms Thermal Structures Modeling Floating Membranes Cantilever Beams and Bridges Closed Membranes Temperature-Difference Sensing Elements Introduction Thermocouples Other Elements Sensors Based on Thermal Measurements Microcalorimeter Psychrometer Infrared Sensor RMS Converter EM Field Sensor Flow Sensor Vacuum Sensor Thermal Conductivity Gauge Acceleration Sensors Nanocalorimeter Summary and Future Trends Summary Future Trends 179 Problems 180 References Smart Temperature Sensors and Temperature-Sensor Systems 185 Gerard CM. Meijer 7.1 Introduction Application-related Requirements and Problems of Temperature Sensors Accuracy Short-term and Long-term Stability Noise and Resolution Self-heating Heat Leakage along the Connecting Wires Dynamic Behavior Resistive Temperature-sensing Elements Practical Mathematical Models Linearity and Linearization 198

6 ix 7.4 Temperature-sensor Features of Transistors General Considerations Physical and Mathematical Models PTAT Temperature Sensors Temperature Sensors with an Intrinsic Voltage Reference Calibration and Trimming of Transistor Temperature Sensors Smart Temperature Sensors and Systems A Smart Temperature Sensor with a Duty-cycle-modulated Output Signal Smart Temperature-sensor Systems with Discrete Elements Case Studies of Smart-sensor Applications Thermal Detection of Micro-organisms with Smart Sensors Control of Substrate Temperature Summary and Future Trends Summary Future Trends 221 Problems 222 References Capacitive Sensors 225 Xiujun Li and Gerard CM. Meijer 8.1 Introduction Basics of Capacitive Sensors Principles Precision of Capacitive Sensors Examples of Capacitive Sensors Angular Encoders Humidity Sensors Liquid-level Gauges The Design of Electrode Configurations EMI Effects Electric-field-bending Effects Active-guard Electrodes Floating Electrodes Contamination and Condensation Reduction of Field-bending Effects: Segmentation Three-layered Electrode Structures A Model for the Electrostatic Field in Electrode Structures Influence of the Electric-field-bending Effects on Linearity Selectivity for Electrical Signals and Electrical Parameters Selective Detection of Band-limited Frequencies Selective Detection of a Selected Parameter Measurement Techniques to Reduce the Effects of Shunting Conductances Summary and Future Trends 246 Problems 246 References 247

7 Integrated Hall Magnetic Sensors 249 Radivoje S. Popovic and Pavel Kejik 1 Introduction Hall Effect and Hall Elements The Hall Effect Hall Elements Characteristics of Hall Elements Integrated Horizontal Hall Plates Integrated Vertical Hall Plates Integrated Hall Sensor Systems Biasing a Hall Device Reducing Offset and 1 If noise Amplifying the Hall Voltage Integrating Magnetic Functions Examples of Integrated Hall Magnetic Sensors Magnetic Angular Position Sensor Fully Integrated Three-axis Hall Probe Integrated Hall Probe for Magnetic Microscopy 271 Problems 276 References 276 Universal Asynchronous Sensor Interfaces 279 Gerard CM. Meijer and Xiujun Li 1 Introduction Universal Sensor Interfaces Asynchronous Converters Conversion of Sensor Signals to the Time Domain Wide-range Conversion of Sensor Signals to the Time Domain for Very Small or Very Large Signals Output Signals Quantization Noise of Sampled Time-modulated Signals A Comparison between Asynchronous Converters and Sigma-delta Converters Dealing with Problems of Low-cost Design of Universal Interface ICs Front-end Circuits Cross-effects and Interaction Interference Optimization of Components, Circuits and Wiring Case Studies Front-end Circuits for Capacitive Sensors Front-end Circuits for Resistive Bridges A Front-end Circuit for a Thermocouple-voltage Processor Summary and Future Trends Summary Future Trends 307 Problems 308 References 311

8 XI 11 Data Acquisition for Frequency- and Time-domain Sensors 313 Sergey Y. Yurish 11.1 Introduction DAQ Boards: State of the Art DAQ Board Design for Quasi-digital Sensors Advanced Methods for Frequency-to-digital Conversion Examples Methods for Duty-cycle-to-digital Conversion Methods for Phase-shift-to-digital Conversion Universal Frequency-to-digital Converters (UFDC) ICsfor Frequency-to-digital Conversion: State of the Art UFDC: Features and Performances Applications and Examples Summary and Future Trends 338 Problems 339 References Microcontrollers and Digital Signal Processors for Smart Sensor Systems 343 Ratcho M. Ivanov 12.1 Introduction MCU and DSP Architectures, Organization, Structures, and Peripherals Choosing a Low-Power MCU or DSP Average Current Consumption Oscillator and System Clocks Interrupts Peripherals Summary Timer Modules Introduction to Timer Modules Examples of Timer Module Applications for Various Microcontrollers Analog Comparators, ADCs, and DACs as Modules of Microcontrollers Introduction Application Examples of Analog Modules Embedded Networks and LCD Interfacing Development Tools and Support Conclusions 374 References Sites 374 Appendix A Material Data 375 Appendix В Conversion for non-si Units 377 Index 379 Solutions to Problems can be found on the Companion website