Remote Sensing of the Environment

Transcription

1 Remote Sensing of the Environment An Earth Resource Perspective John R. Jensen University of South Carolina Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

2 Brief Contents 1 Remote Sensing of the Environment 1 L 2 Electromagnetic Radiation Principles 29 -^ 3 History of Aerial Photography and Aerial Platforms 53 4 Aerial Photography - Vantage Point, Cameras, Filters, and Film 85 5 Elements of Visual Image Interpretation 119 L- 6 Photogrammetry 137, 7 Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Active and Passive Microwave, and LIDAR Remote Sensing Remote Sensing of Vegetation Remote Sensing of Water Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape 407 ' 13 Remote Sensing of Soils, Minerals, and Geomorphology 471 Index 531 ; Appendix A Sources of Remote Sensing Information 541 ;

3 Contents Preface Acknowledgments xiii xvi Chapter 1 Remote Sensing of the Environment 1 In Situ Data Collection 1 Remote Sensing Data Collection 2 Maximal/Minimal Definitions 3 Remote Sensing Advantages and Limitations 7 The Remote Sensing Process 8 Statement of the Problem 9 Identification of In Situ and Remote Sensing Data Requirements 10 Remote Sensing Data Collection 12 Remote Sensing Data Analysis 21 Information Presentation 24 Earth Resource Analysis Perspective 24 Book Organization, 24 Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Radiation Principles 29 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation 29 '. Electromagnetic Radiation Models 30 Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy 30 The Particle Model - Radiation from Atomic Structures 35 Energy-Matter Interactions in the Atmosphere 39 Refraction 39 Scattering 41 Absorption 42 Reflectance 44 Energy-Matter Interactions with the Terrain 44 Hemispherical. Reflectance, Absorptance, and Transmittance 44 Radiant Flux Density 46 Energy-Matter Interactions in the Atmosphere Once Again 48 Energy-Matter Interactions at the Sensor System 48 Target and Path Radiance 48 Conclusion 51 Chapter 3 History of Aerial Photography and Aerial Platforms.. 53 History of Photography 53 Light and Color 53 The Camera Obscura 54 Invention of Light-sensitive Emulsions and Methods of Permanently Fixing the Image 54 Photography from Aerial Platforms 57 Ornithopters 57 VII

4 viii CONTENTS Lighter-Than-Air Flight Using Balloons 58 Lighter-Than-Air Flight Using Kites 61 Heavier-Than-Air Flight Using Rockets 63 Heavier-Than-Air Flight Using Pigeons, Gliders, and Aircraft 63 Photo-reconnaissance in World War I and World War II 64 Aerial Photography in World War I 67 Aerial Photography in World War II 67 Cold War Photo-Reconnaissance 69 Genetrix Reconnaissance Balloons 70 U-2 Aircraft Reconnaissance Program 71 The SR Stealth Technology 74 Celestial Satellite Sentinels 74 Corona 74 Ongoing Satellite Sentinels 78 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 79 Commercial, Nonmilitary Remote Sensing Platforms 79 Use of National Technical Means Remotely Sensed Data by Nonmilitary Federal Agencies 80 Chapter 4 -r- Aerial Photography - Vantage Point, Cameras, Filters, and Film 85 Vertical and Oblique Vantage Points 85 Vertical Aerial Photography 85 Oblique Aerial Photography.. 86 Aerial Cameras 87 Aerial Camera Components Compared with the Eye 87 Types of Aerial Cameras 91 Aerial Photography Filtration 97 Types, Sizes, and Colors of Filters 99 Aerial Photography Films 102 General Characteristics of Photographic Emulsions 102 Black-and-White Photographic Emulsions 103 Color Photographic Emulsions 114 Planning Aerial Photography Missions 116 Time of Day Sun Angle 116 Weather 117 Flightline Layout 117 Chapter 5 Elements of Visual Image Interpretation 119 Introduction 119 The Aerial/Regional Perspective 120 Three-Dimensional Depth Perception 120 Obtaining Knowledge Beyond Our Human Visual Perception 121 Historical Image Record and Change Detection Documentation 121 Elements of Image Interpretation 121 Methods of Search 133 Using Collateral Information..< 133 Convergence of Evidence 134 The Multi-concept 134 Conclusion 135 Chapter 6 Photogrammetry 137 Flightlines of Vertical Aerial Photography 138

5 CONTENTS. ix Fiducial Marks, Principal Points, and Conjugate Principal Points 140 Geometry of Vertical Aerial Photography 140 Scale and Height Measurement on Single Vertical Aerial Photographs 142 Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph Over Level Terrain 144 Scale of a Vertical Aerial Photograph Over Variable Terrain 147 Height Measurement from Single Aerial Photographs 148 Stereoscopic Measurement of Object Height or Terrain Elevation 151 Fundamentals of Human Stereoscopy 152 Stereoscopy Applied to Aerial Photography 152 Stereoscopic Aerial Photography - How Does It Work? 157 Orthophotos and Digital Elevation Models 164 Advances in the Collection of Accurate Horizontal and Vertical Ground Control to Produce Orthophotography 166 Advances in the Collection of Metric Aerial Photography and Other Remote Sensor Data Used in the Creation of Orthoimage Databases 166 Advances in Image Digitization Technology for the Creation of Orthoimage Databases 167 Advances in Soft-Copy Photogrammetry for the Creation of Orthoimages 167 Advances in the Creation of the Digital Elevation Model 167 Advances in the Creation of the Orthoimage 169 Problems and Potential Solutions Associated with Digital Elevation Models Derived Using Soft-Copy Photogrammetry 169 Problems and Potential Solutions Associated with Orthoimagery Derived Using Soft-Copy Photogrammetry 170 Area Measurement 174 Area Measurement of Well-Known Geometric Shapes 175 Area Measurement of Irregularly Shaped Polygons 175 Chapter 7 Multispectral Remote Sensing Systems 181 Multispectral Data Collection 181 Digital Image Terminology 182 Multispectral Imaging Using Discrete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors 184 Earth Resource Technology Satellites (ERTS) and the Landsat Sensor Systems NOAA Multispectral Scanner Sensors 201 ORBIMAGE and NASA Sea-viewing Wide Field of View Sensor (SeaWiFS) Aircraft Multispectral Scanners 209 Multispectral Imaging Using Linear Arrays 212 SPOT Sensor Systems 212 Indian Remote Sensing Systems 220 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER). 221 Multi-angle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) 222 Very High-Resolution Linear Array Remote Sensing Systems 224 Imaging Spectrometry Using Linear and Area Arrays 226 Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) 228 Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager-2 (CASI-2) 230 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) 231 Digital Frame Cameras 231 Digital Frame Camera Data-Collection 231 Positive Systems, Inc 233 Litton Emerge Spatial, Inc 235 Satellite Photographic Systems 235 Russian SPIN-2 TK-350 and KVR-1000 Cameras 235

6 CONTENTS U.S. Space Shuttle Photography 238 Digital Image Data Storage 238 Chapter 8 Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing 243 History of Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing 244 Thermal Infrared Radiation Properties 246 Kinetic Heat, Temperature, Radiant Energy and Radiant Flux 246 Methods of Transferring Heat 246 Thermal Infrared Atmospheric Windows 246 Thermal Radiation Laws 247 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 247 Wien's Displacement Law 248 Emissivity 248 Kirchoff's Radiation Law 250 Thermal Properties of Terrain 253 Thermal Infrared Data Collection 254 Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanners 254 Pushbroom Linear and Area-Array Charge-Coupled-Device (CCD) Detectors Thermal Infrared Environmental Considerations 266 Diurnal Temperature Cycle of Typical Materials 266 Examples of Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing 271 Nonpoint Source Pollution Monitoring 271 Residential Thermal Imagery Energy Surveys 274 Analysis of the Urban Heat Island Effect 278 Use of Thermal Infrared Imagery for Forestry Applications 278 Chapter 9 Active and Passive Microwave, and LIDAR Remote Sensing 285 History of Active Microwave (RADAR) Remote Sensing 285 Active Microwave System Components 288 Sending and Receiving a Pulse of Microwave Energy - System Components Slant-Range Versus Ground-Range RADAR Image Geometry 292 Relief Displacement, Image Foreshortening, Layover, Shadows, and Speckle Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems 302 RADAR Environmental Considerations 308 Surface Roughness Characteristics 308 Electrical Characteristics (Complex Dielectric Constant) and the Relationship with Moisture Content 311 Vegetation Response to Microwave Energy 312 Water Response to Microwave Energy 317 Urban Structure Response to Microwave Energy 317 SAR Remote Sensing from Space 319 Seasat 319 Shuttle Imaging Radar SIR-A, SIR-B, SIR-C 319 RADARSAT 319 European Space Agency ERS JERS Almaz RADAR Interferometry 323 Interferometric Topographic Mapping 323 Interferometric Velocity Mapping 324 Passive Microwave Remote Sensing 325 Passive Microwave Radiometers 325 Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) 326

7 CONTENTS xi LIDAR Sensor System 327 Accuracy of LIDAR Measurements 328 Canopy Penetration Capability 329 Chapter 10 Remote Sensing of Vegetation 333 Photosynthesis Fundamentals 333 Spectral Characteristics of Vegetation 334 Dominant Factors Controlling Leaf Reflectance 334 Temporal Characteristics of Vegetation 352 Natural Phenological Cycles 353 Managed Phenological Cycles 354 Vegetation Indices 361 Landscape Ecology Metrics 366 Landscape Indicators and Patch Metrics 367 Biodiversity and GAP Analysis 368 Remote Sensing of Vegetation Change 370 Remote Sensing Inland Wetland Successional Changes 370 Chapter 11 Remote Sensing of Water 379 Remote Sensing Surface Water Biophysical Characteristics 380 Water Surface, Subsurface Volumetric, and Bottom Radiance 380 Spectral Response of Water as a Function of Wavelength 381 Spectral Response of Water as a Function of Organic /Inorganic Constituents Water Penetration (Bathymetry) 393 Water Surface Temperature 393 Precipitation 395 Visible-Infrared Techniques 395 Active and Passive Microwave Techniques 395 Aerosols and Clouds 396 Aerosols 396 Clouds 397 Water Vapor 401 Snow 401 Snow in the Visible Spectrum 401 Snow in the Middle-Infrared and Microwave Regions 401 Water Quality Modeling Using Remote Sensing and GIS 402 An Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS Water Quality Model 402 Chapter 12 Remote Sensing the Urban Landscape 407 Urban/Suburban Resolution Considerations 408 Urban/Suburban Temporal Resolution Considerations 408 Urban/Suburban Spectral Resolution Considerations 408 Urban/Suburban Spatial Resolution Considerations 411 Remote Sensing Land Use and Land Cover 413 Land Use/Land Cover Classification Schemes 413 Urban Land Use/Land Cover Classification (Levels I to IV) 414 Residential Land Use 418 Single-Family versus Multi-Family Residential 418 Building and Cadastral (Property Line) Infrastructure 422 Socioeconomic Characteristics Derived from Single- and Multi -Family Residential-Housing Information 422 Energy Demand and Conservation 425 Commercial and Services Land Use 426

8 xii CONTENTS The Central Business District 426 Commercial Land Use 427 Services (Public and Private) 439 Industrial Land Use 443 Industrial Land Use Classification Logic 443 Extraction Industries 443 Processing Industries 444 Fabrication Industries 453 Transportation Infrastructure 456 Communications and Utilities 460 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Creation 463 Meteorological Data 464 Critical Environmental Area Assessment 465 Disaster Emergency Response 465 Observations 466 Chapter 13 Remote Sensing of Soils, Minerals, and Geomorphology 471 Soil Characteristics and Taxonomy 472 Soil Horizons 472 Soil Grain Size and Texture 473 Soil Taxonomy 474 Remote Sensing of Soil Properties 474 Soil Texture and Moisture Content 476 Soil Organic Matter 478 Iron Oxide 478 Surface Roughness 479 Remote Sensing of Rocks and Minerals 479 Imaging Spectroscopy of Rocks and Minerals 480 Geology 483 Lithology 484 Structure 484 Drainage Density and Pattern 485 Geomorphology 490 Igneous Landforms 492 Landforms Developed on Horizontal Strata 494 Landforms Developed on Folded Strata 497 Fault-Controlled Landforms 500 Fluvial Landforms 503 Karst Landforms 509 Shoreline Landforms 511 Glacial Landforms 517 Eolian Landforms 522 Index 531 Appendix A Sources of Remote Sensing Information 541