Electronic Warfare Receivers. and Receiving Systems. Richard A. Poisel ARTECH HOUSE BOSTON LONDON. artechhouse.com

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1 Electronic Warfare Receivers and Receiving Systems Richard A. Poisel ARTECH HOUSE BOSTON LONDON artechhouse.com

2 Table of Contents Preface Chapter 1 Receiving Systems and Receiving System Architectures Introduction Electronic Support Systems Electronic Support Command and Control The Electromagnetic Spectrum Receiving System Architectures Fundamental Receiving System Model Monitor Receivers Concept of the Superhet Receiver Search Receiver Architectures Scanning Narrowband Receiver Compressive Receiver Digital Transform Receiver Receiver Considerations Key System Performance Parameters Noise Figure Sensitivity Selectivity Dynamic Range Other Significant Parameters Spread Spectrum FHSS DSSS THSS Collection Management The Collection Management Process Concluding Remarks 22 Appendix 1.A Collection Management Process Output Products 23 l.a.l Asset Evaluation Worksheet 23 1.A.2 Intelligence Synchronization Matrix 23 xxi vii

3 viii Electronic Warfare Receivers and Receiving Systems References 26 Chapter 2 Signals and Modulation Systems Introduction Representing Signals Complex Signals and Systems Introduction Basic Concepts and Definitions Analytic Signals and Hilbert Transforms Frequency Translations and Mixing Complex Signals and Sampling Summary System Definition Modulations Analog Modulations Modern Digital Modulations Random Modulation Stationary Processes Random Modulation Summary Access Methods TDMA FDMA CDMA SDMA Pulse-Shaping Filters Rectangular Pulse Shaped Pulses Concluding Remarks 95 References 96 Chapter 3 RF Stage Introduction Normalized Input Referred Added Noise Noise Factor/Figure Low Noise Amplifiers Introduction Minimum Noise Factor LNA Gain BJTLNA MOSFETLNA Input Matching LNA Stability 135

4 Table of Contents IX LNA Nonlinearity Model Noise Reduction with an Input Transformer Band Select Filtering/Preselector Filters Roofing Filters Concluding Remarks 147 References 147 Chapter 4 Bandwidth Expansion for Small Signal Amplifiers Introduction Shunt Peaking Input and Output Matching Bandwidth Enhancement for Transimpedance Amplifiers Limits to Bandwidth Enhancement Lossy Matching Performance Parameters Practical Considerations Summary Feedback Shunt-Series Feedback Shunt Feedback Bandwidth Extension Balanced Amplifiers Coupling Distributed Amplifier Concluding Remarks 185 References 186 Chapter 5 RF Mixers and Mixing Introduction RF Mixers Introduction Nonlinear Mixers Analog Mixing Large Signal Switching or Sampling Mixer Performance 193 Mixers Some Passive Mixers Some Active Mixers Isolation Conversion Gain Mixer Noise Image Reject Filtering Summary Local Oscillators 231

5 X Electronic Warfare Receivers and Receiving Systems Characteristics of Feedback Fundamental Oscillator Types Crystal Oscillators Microelectromechanical Oscillators Phase Locked Loops Frequency Synthesizers Oscillator Phase Noise Oscillator Stability Concluding Remarks 271 References 271 Chapter 6 IF Amplifiers Introduction Amplifier Input and Output Impedances and Gain RF Amplifiers EW RF Amplifier Analysis BJT IF Amplifiers MOSFET High Frequency Amplifiers Frequency Response ofrf Amplifiers Microwave Tubes Transformer Coupling Automatic Gain Control Introduction VGA Types Loop Dynamics Detector Types Operating 6.6 Concluding Level of Detector 299 Remarks 300 References 300 Chapter 7 IF Filters Introduction Filters and Signals Basic Filter Types Transfer Functions Brick-Wall Filter Bandpass Notch or Bandstop Lowpass Highpass All-Pass or Phase-Shift Higher-Order Filters Filter Approximations 319

6 Table of Contents xi Introduction Butterworth Chebyshev Bessel Elliptic (Cauer) Approaches to Implementing Filters Passive Filters Surface Acoustic Wave Filters Crystal Filters Ceramic RF and IF Filters MEMS RF Filters Concluding Remarks 362 References 362 Chapter 8 Narrowband Receivers Introduction Superheterodyne Receivers Superheterodyne Receiver History Mixing and the Superhet Receiver Images in the Superhet Receiver IF Frequencies Superhet Receiver Block Diagram Homodyne (Zero-IF) Receiver Concept of the DCR Overview of DC Offsets in DCRs Noise in Direct Conversion Receivers Tuned Radio Frequency Receivers Concluding Remarks 380 References 380 Chapter 9 Compressive Receivers Introduction Compressive Receiver Configurations C-M-C and M-C-M Configurations Fundamentals of CxRx Operation The M(s)-C(l)-M Arrangement Dispersive Delay Lines Limitations of Practical SAW Devices M-C CxRx Operation Swept Local Oscillator Frequency Resolution Frequency Accuracy Sensitivity and Compression Time 397

7 Xll Electronic Warfare Receivers and Receiving Systems Simultaneous Signal Detection CxRx Response The C-M-C Chirp Transform Arrangement Concluding Remarks 407 References 408 Chapter 10 Digital Receivers Overview Introduction Digital Receiver Architectures Narrowband Digital Receiver Digital RF Architecture IF Sampling Topology Electronic Warfare Digital Receiver Digital Receiver Technology Drivers Analog-to-Digital Converter Digital Signal Processor Elementary Introduction to RF/IF Digital Signal Processing Frequency-Domain Ambiguity Quadrature Signals Summary Digital EW Receivers Introduction Single-Signal versus Multisignal Benefits of Implementing a Digital Receiver Receiver Performance Expectations Available Noise Power Cascaded Noise Figure Noise Figures and ADCs Conversion Gain and Sensitivity ADC Spurious Signals and Dither Third-Order Intercept Point ADC Clock Jitter Phase Noise Summary Gain and Phase Imbalance Concluding Remarks 443 References 444 Chapter 11 Sampling and Analog-to-Digital Converters Introduction Wideband Receivers Channelized Sampling Methods and Analog Filtering 448

8 Table ofcontents Nyquist Sampling Bandpass Sampling Effects of Quantization Noise, Distortion, and Receiver Noise Introduction ADC Transfer Function Input-Referred Noise 459 Ratio Theoretical Signal-to-Noise Practical Specifications for Real ADCs ADC Noises Spurious-Free Dynamic Range Noise Power Ratio Flash ADC Flash ADC Architecture Sparkle Codes Metastability Input Signal Frequency Dependence Sigma-Delta ADCs Introduction E-A ADC Operation 480 Considerations Higher Order Loop Multibit Sigma-Delta Converters Bandpass Sigma-Delta Converters Flash ADC versus Other ADC Architectures Flash versus SAR ADCs Flash versus Pipelined ADCs Flash versus Integrating ADCs 489 ADCs Flash versus Sigma-Delta Flash ADC Architectural Tradeoffs Flash Converter Characteristics Summary Other Sampling and ADC Considerations Ease of ADC Implementation Linearity Power Consumption, Circuit Complexity, Chip Area, and Reconfigurability Concluding Remarks 493 References 494 Chapter 12 Digital Filtering Introduction Advantages of Using Digital Filters Disadvantages of Digital Filters Operation of Digital Filters 500

9 XIV Electronic Warfare Receivers and Receiving Systems 12.3 Simple Digital Filters Order of a Digital Filter Digital Filter Coefficients Recursive and Nonrecursive Filters Impulse Response Lowpass FIR Filter Order ofanur Filter Example of a Recursive Filter Coefficients of IIR Digital Filters The Transfer Function of a Digital Filter The Frequency Response of Digital Filters Multirate Processing of Bandpass and HQ Signals Decimation or Downsampling with Complex Signals Interpolation or Upsampling with Complex Signals Efficient Polyphase Structures Hilbert Transform and Delay Filtering Effect of the Delay Processing Concluding Remarks 534 References 535 Chapter 13 Digital Demodulation Introduction Digital HQ Demodulation Introduction HQ Demodulation Direct IF Digital Demodulator Digital Signal Processing without the Digital Signal Processor HQ Sampling Vector Representation Undersampling Direct IF-Processing Elements A/D Converter/IF Sampler Digital IF Sample to HQ Vector Conversion HQ Vector to Phase Conversion Vector Magnitude: AM Detection Summary HQ Imbalance Compensation Baseband Signal Model for Digital Imbalance Compensation Adaptive Interference Cancellation (IC)-Based Compensation Summary 555

10 Table of Contents xv Verification and Validation Concluding Remarks 558 References 558 Chapter 14 Digital-to-Analog Converters Introduction Digital-to-Analog Converter Architectures DAC Transfer Function String DAC Fully Decoded DACs Time Reference Divider Oversampling DACs Sigma-Delta DACs Current-to-Voltage Converters Error Sources in DACs Static Error Sources Dynamic Error Sources Reconstruction Filters Concluding Remarks 586 Appendix 14.A Semiconductor Current Sources and Switches A.1 Semiconductor Current Sources A.2 Semiconductor Switches A.3 Transistors as Current Source and Switch 590 References 590 Chapter 15 Direct Digital Converters Introduction Digital Receivers Digital Downconverters Introduction Digital Downconverters Polyphase Filter Banks Introduction Polyphase Bandwidth, Spectral Spacing, and Output Sample Rates Computational Complexity Concluding Remarks 614 Appendix 15 A Direct Digital Synthesis A.1 Phase Truncation A.2 Direct Digital Synthesis 616 References 619 Chapter 16 Spread Spectrum Techniques 621

11 Electronic Warfare Receivers and Receiving Systems 16.1 Introduction Review of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Fundamentals of DSSS Operation Modulation and Demodulation Coding Techniques Near-Far Problem Review of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum FHSS Operation Modulation Coding FHSS Issues Near-Far Problem Time Hopped Spread Spectrum Introduction Ultrawideband Systems Modulation Formats UWB Pulse Position Modulation Jam Resistance and Processing Gain Multipath and Propagation Advantages of Spread Spectrum Concluding Remarks 644 References 645 Chapter 17 Receivers for Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Intercept Introduction Overview of Two Receivers Eigenanalysis Technique Spectral Norm Maximization Eigenanalysis Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Receiver Signal Model Estimation of the Symbol Duration Blind Estimation of the Spreading Sequence Verification and Validation Summary 17.4 Spectral Norm Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Receiver Symbol Synchronization Symbol Estimation Spread Sequence Estimation Identification of Generator Polynomial Verification and Validation Summary Concluding Remarks 670 References 671

12 Table of Contents xvii Chapter 18 Receivers for Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum Intercept Introduction Signal Detection Optimal Receivers for Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum Interception Detection of Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum Signals with Filter Bank Combiners Introduction Receiver Structure Radiometer Output Distribution Channelization Techniques Logical OR-SUM Channelized Radiometer MAX-SUM Channelized Radiometer Verification and Validation Summary Partial-Band Detection Scanning Superhet for Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum Target Detection Scanning Narrowband Receiver Performance of Scanning Superhet Receivers Sequential versus Nonsequential Scanning Compressive Receivers for Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum Interception Compressive Receiver Noise and Signal Low SNR Detector Simple Filter Detectors Verification and Validation Summary Concluding Remarks 708 References 709 Chapter 19 Receivers for Time Hopped Spread Spectrum Intercept Introduction Detecting UWB Signals Modulations Required SNR Measure of Effectiveness Ratio of Distance-Measure of Effectiveness Concluding Remarks 730 References 730 Chapter 20 Direction Finding Receivers 733

13 XV111 Electronic Warfare Receivers and Receiving Systems 20.1 Introduction Direction of Arrival Direction Finding Techniques Overview The Adcock Array and the Watson-Watt System PseudoDoppler Direction Finding System Overview Phase Interferometer System Overview Error Sources in Direction Finding Systems Polarization-Induced Error DF Errors Caused by Incoherent Wave Interference DF Errors Caused by Coherent Wave Interference (Multipath) Modulation Physical Antenna Arrangement Receiver Noise Amplitude Matching and Phase Tracking Antenna Element Interaction Antenna Height above Ground Adcock/Watson-Watt (Four-Element Adcock) Natural Direction Finding Error of the Adcock Adcock Direction Finding Errors Caused by Reflections (Coherent Wave Interference) Adcock Incoherent Interference Adcock Polarization Error Adcock/Watson-Watt Errors Due to Receiver Noise Amplitude Matching with Adcock Direction Finding Phase Errors with the Adcock Direction Finding Adcock/Watson-Watt Modulation-Induced Errors Interaction of the Adcock Antenna Elements Geometrical Errors of the Adcock Antenna PseudoDoppler Systems Output Harmonics Other Receiver Implications Polarization-Induced Errors Doppler Coherent Wave Interference Doppler Incoherent Interference Doppler Errors due to Receiver Noise Tracking and Matching for Doppler Direction Finding Direction Finding Errors Caused by the Group Delay of the Doppler Direction Finding Doppler Direction Finding Errors Caused by Receiver 771 Modulation Interaction of the Doppler Antenna Elements Geometrical Errors of the Doppler Antenna Phase Interferometers 775

14 Table of Contents xix Four-Element Interferometer Modulation-Induced Errors Tracking Imbalance-Induced Errors Polarization Induced-Errors Antenna Interaction-Induced Errors Geometrical Misplacement-Induced Errors Coherent Interference Incoherent Interference Dual Channel Compressive Receivers for Direction Finding Phase Processor Phase Measurements Butler Matrix Receiver Implications Concluding Remarks 789 Appendix 20.A RMS and RSS in Error Analysis 790 References 791 List ofacronyms 793 About the Author 801 Index 803

Integrated Circuit Design for High-Speed Frequency Synthesis

Integrated Circuit Design for High-Speed Frequency Synthesis John Rogers Calvin Plett Foster Dai ARTECH H O US E BOSTON LONDON artechhouse.com Preface XI CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction to Frequency