Modern Communications Receiver Design and Technology

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1 Modern Communications Receiver Design and Technology Cornell Drentea ARTECH HOUSE BOSTON[LONDON artechhouse.com

2 Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Introduction xiii xv xix xxi -- Introduction to Receivers The History of Radio 2.1 The Coherer 2.2 The First Radio Receiver 2.3 The Decoherer (Practical CohereriDecoherer Receivers) 2.4 Galena Crystal Discovery, the Fleming Valve, and the Audion 2.5 The Audion and the Regenerative Receiver 2.6 The Audion and the Local Oscillator 2.7 The Audion and the Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver 2.8 Early Progress in Radio Receivers Reference S The Superheterodyne Receiver 3.1 Single Conversions 3.2 Multiple Conversions 3.3 Direct Conversion (Zero IF) Implementing Single Conversion Superheterodynes 4.1 The Image Problem 4.2 Upconverting-The Rule of 35% 4.3 Selectivity and IF Filters 4.4 Defining Baseband and Broadband: The Concept of Percentage Bandwidth 1S v

3 vi Contents 4.5 Percentage Bandwidth and Filter Design The Seven-Layer ISO-OSI Model IF Filters, an Introduction-History of Filter Design Elements of Modern Filter Design Passband, Bandwidth, and Stopband Shape Factor Center Frequency and Nominal Center Frequency Attenuation and Insertion Loss Ultimate Rejection Ripple and Passband Ripple Spurious Response Linearity Intermodulation Distortion (IMD) in IF Filters Power Handling Capability Settling Time and Rise Time in Filters Phase Delay and Group Delay Distortion Impedance Vibration-Induced Sidebands Modern Filter Approximations Bessel or Linear Phase Butterworth Chebyshev Cauer-EJJiptic Gaussian Synchronously Tuned IF Filter Technologies Mechanical Filters Quartz Crystal Filters Temperature Stability in Quartz Crystal Filters Designing High Performance Quartz IF Filters Monolithic Crystal Filters (MCF) The Tandem Monolithic Ceramic Filters Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) and Bulk Acoustic Wave (BAW) Filters Technological Trade-Offs in Intermediate Frequency (IF) Filters 74 References 75 Selected Bibliography 75 Implementing Double Conversions 77 Implementing Multiple Conversions 81 Implementing Direct Conversions 7.1 Image Reject Mixers 83 85

4 7.2 Hartley Architecture Weaver Architecture Self-Calibrating Architecture Image Reject Mixer with Sign-Sign Least Mean Square (SS-LMS) Calibration Method Image Reject Mixers Conclusions Image Recovery Receivers 92 Reference 93 Selected Bibliography 93 ~ Special Conversions and Their Implementation 99 ~ Drift-Canceling Loops and the Barlow-Wadley Receiver 101 CHAPTER 10 High Probability of Intercept (HPOI) and the Ideal Receiver 105 Selected Bibliography 108 CHAPTER 11 The Role of the Receiver in a Communications Link 109 Reference 118 Selected Bibliography 118 CHAPTER 12 System Design Considerations for Modern Receivers Introduction Understanding Intermodulation Distortion Products Predicting Receiver System Spurious Performance: Design Tools for Predicting Intermodulation Distortion Product Charts and Their Use-The Intermodulation Distortion Web Analysis Tool System Analysis for a General Coverage Communication Receiver-A Design Case 130 Selected Bibliography 136 CHAPTER 13 Dynamic Range Definitions: The Five Types of Dynamic Range Single-Tone Dynamic Range Two-Tone Dynamic Range Determining Noise Figure Requirements Sensitivity Design Considerations for the Front End-Composite Noise Figure 143

5 viii Contents 13.5 Understanding the Third-Order Intercept Point Spurious-Free Dynamic Range (IP3SFDR) 13.6 Simulating and Measuring Composite Linear Dynamic Range for an HPOI Receiver References Selected Bibliography CHAPTER 14 High-Performance Receiver Front-End Design Example Designing a Front End for an HF Receiverffransceiver Practical Preselector Design: Automatically Switched Half-Octave Filter Banks-A Design Case Switching Mechanisms of Front-End Filters for Best Dynamic Range Performance Automatically Switched Half-Octave Filters Design 169 References 173 Selected Bibliography 174 CHAPTER 15 Mixers The Mathematics of Mixers, Laplace, and Fourier Transforms Mixer Topologies The Single-Balanced Mixer The Double-Balanced Mixer and Its Performance Characteristics Terminating Mixers and the Diplexer AM Noise Suppression and Phase Noise Impacts on Transferring Signals in Mixers Conversion Loss and Noise Figure of Diode Mixers Two-Tone Intermodulation Performance in Mixers Compression Point (-1 db) in Mixers Desensitization Level and Isolation Commutative Mixers, FET, and H-Mode Mixers Integrated Circuit Mixers-Gilbert Cell Mixers Image-Reject Mixers Image Recovery Mixers Mixer Technology Conc1usions 191 Reference 191 Selected Bibliography 191 CHAPTER 16 Frequency Synthesizers Introduction Definitions Leeson Oscillator Noise Model Leng-Term and Short-Terrn Frequency Stability Residual Phase Noise and Absolute Phase Noise Allan Variance 197

6 Contents ix 16.6 Phase Noise and Jitter Concepts Defining Coherency in Synthesizers Open Loop Systems: Mixing VFOs with Crystal Oscillators Synthesizer Forms and Classifications: Brute Force, Direct and Indirect, and Nonbrute Force, Direct and Indirect Brute Force Nonbrute Force The Mixer as a Synthesizer Digital and Analog Regenerative Dividers Harmonie Multipliers Single-Loop Integer Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Multiple-Loop, Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Digital Counter/Comparator and Digiphase Synthesizer Fractional-N and Dual-Modulus Divider Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) The Mixer Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS)-Driven PLL Foster Seeley and Digital Frequency Discriminators Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Key Components Master Reference OscillatorlUnit (MRU) Technology Classifications: Quartz (TCXO, OCXO, MCXO), SAW, Photonic, Rubidium, and Caesium (Cesium) Hydrogen Maser Designing a High-Performance MRU for an HPOI Receiver Photonie Master Reference Unit (MRU) Hydrogen Maser, Caesium (Cesium), and Rubidium Master Reference Units (MRUs) Phase Detectors Amplifier/Loop Filter Trade-Offs Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) Modeling Phase Delays in Phase-Locked Loops Designing a DDS-Driven PLL Synthesizer for the Upconvert, Double Conversion HPOI Receiver Performance of the DDS-Driven PLL The Opto-Encoder and Its Application Key Rules in Designing PLLs Problems: Design a Synthesized Receiver System for the FM Broadcast Band Final Concluding Notes to Synthesizers Additive Noise in PLL Design 292 References 292 Selected Bibliography 293 CHAPTER 17 Intermediate Frequency (IF) Receivers Switched and Cascaded IF Filters Implementing a High-Performance IF in the Star-l0 Receiver Logarithmic IFs 312

7 x Con~nb 17.4 Using Logarithmic Amplifiers in Low-Cost High-Performance ASK Data Receivers Variable Passband Filters and Analog IFs Noise Blankers The Variable Pulse Noise Blanker and the Star-l0 Receiver Noise Blanker The Notch Filter and the Bandpass Tuning Mechanism 318 References 322 Selected Bibliography 323 CHAPTER 18 Automatie Gain Control (AGC) Introduction Linear Control Systems-Feedback Systems and Their Significance in Receivers Achieving High Dynamic Range with AGC: The Concept of Composite Dynamic Range Deriving and Applying AGC in Receivers Understanding and Using Logarithmic Detectors Square-Law Detectors True-RMS Detectors Attack and Release Time, Hanged AGC, and the Star-l0 AGC System Audio-Derived AGC The PIN Diode Attenuator Used for AGC Digital AGCs Other Considerations for AGC Detectors 336 References 338 Selected Bibliography 339 CHAPTER 19 Product Detectors and Beat Frequency Oscillators (BFO) land Q Demodulation Process: The Concept of Demodulation Other Demodulation Techniques The Star-l0 Receiver Product Detector 345 References 350 Selected Bibliography 350 CHAPTER 20 Audio and Baseband Amplifier Design Considerations 351 Selected ßibliography 355 CHAPTER 21 The Power Supply 357 Selected ßibliography 359

8 Contents xi CHAPTER 22 Putting It All Together 22.1 Packaging and Mechanical Considerations CHAPTER 23 Radio Astronomy and the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) Receivers CHAPTER 24 Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and Software-Defined Radio (SDR) 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Representation of Discrete Time Signals 24.3 Baseband Sampling Theory 24.4 Bandpass Sampling Theory 24.5 Analog-to-Digital (ND) Conversion 24.6 Successive Approximation ND 24.7 Dual-Slope ND 24.8 Flash ND 24.9 Delta-Sigma (~~) Modulator ND Delta-Sigma, Quantizing, and Noise Shaping Digital-to-Analog (DIA) Conversion Staircase Reconstruction Bit Stream DIA The Fourier Transform Discrete and Fast Fourier Transforms Digital Filters Infinite Impulse Response (UR) Filters Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters Smoothing Windows-HanningIHamming, Blackman, and Kaiser Bessel Phase Noise and ]itter Considerations: Choosing Offsets in Bandpass Digital Signal Processing Practical Software-Defined Radios (SDR) The ADAT Software-Defined Radio Other Software-Defined Radios (SDR) Defining Software-Defined Radios (SDR) Cognitive Radio Conclusions References Selected Bibliography CHAPTER25 Electronic Warfare (EW) Receivers 25.1 Probability of Intercept (POl) 25.2 Crystal Video Receiver

9 ~ Con~n~ 25.3 The Compressive (Microscan) Receiver Instantaneous Frequency Measurement (IFM) Receiver and Digital Instantaneous Frequency Measurement Receiver (DIFM) Phase Detection in Interferometer Receivers Wideband Swept Superheterodyne Receivers Narrowband Swept Superheterodyne Receivers Channelized Bulk Filter (Cued) Receiver The Bragg Cell ur Acousto-Optic Receiver and Ultrawideband Instantaneous IFs 435 2S.10 Conclusions 440 References 441 Selected Bibliography 441 CHAPl'ER 26 Conclusions 443 About the Author 445 Index 447

Introduction Introduction to radio frequencies p. 3 What are the 'radio frequencies'? p. 3 Why are radio frequencies different? p.

Foreword p. xi Preface p. xiii Introduction Introduction to radio frequencies p. 3 What are the 'radio frequencies'? p. 3 Why are radio frequencies different? p. 3 What this book covers p. 3 Signals and