Handbook of Power Quality

Transcription

1 Handbook of Power Quality Edited by Angelo Baggini University of Bergamo, Italy John Wiley &. Sons, Ltd

2 Contents List of Contributors Preface xix xxiii 1 Frequency Variations 1 Hermina Albert, Nicolae Golovanov, Aleksander Kot and Janusz Bro'zek 1.1 Frequency Quality Indices Frequency Measuring Load-Frequency Characteristics Influence of the Frequency Variation on the Actuation Motors Capacitor Bank and Harmonie Filters Transformers and Coils in the Power Network Influence of Frequency on Users' Equipment Influence of Frequency Variations on Asynchronous Motors Influence of Frequency Variations on Parallel-Connected Condensers and Coils Influence of Frequency Variations on Series-Connected Condensers and Coils Governing of Turbine Speed Frequency Control in Power Systems Composite Load The Generation Characteristic The System Properties and Control Basics Frequency Control in an Islanding System and in Interconnected Systems Frequency Control: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Technical and Organizational Aspects of Load-Frequency Control 28 Bibliography 29

3 Continuity of Supply 31 Krish Gomatom and Tom Short 2.1 Distribution Reliability Customer-Based Indices Load-Based Indices Variation in the Utility Indices Quality of Supply Customer Service Continuity of Supply Voltage Quality Factors Affecting Reliability Performance Reliability Indices Reporting Differences Based on Type of Supply Improving Reliability Utility-Side Improvement Options Custom Power Devices Costs, Markets and Value for Reliability Size of the End-User Load and Duration Affect Cost Market for Reliability Value of Reliability: a Macro View Impact of Reliability Events on End-User Productivity Mapping Reliability to End-User Facility Operating Hours 54 Bibliography 57 Voltage Control in Distribution Systems 59 Andrzej Kanicki \ 3.1 Description of the Phenomena Disturbance Sources Disturbance Effects Load Models Voltage Drop Voltage Stability Methods of Effect Elimination Generator Excitation Control Transformer Ratio Control Voltage Control by Means of Reactive Power Flow Change Voltage Control by Means of Network Impedance Change Node Voltage Optimization Standards Voltage Standards in Grid Normal Operating Conditions Voltage Standards in Grid Disturbed Operating Conditions 76

4 3.5.3 Voltage Standards in Middle- and Low-Voltage Distribution Networks 77 Bibliography 77 4 Voltage Dips and Short Supply Interruptions 79 Zbigniew Hanzelka 4.1 Description of the Phenomena Parameters Voltage Dip Duration Magnitude of a Voltage Dip Sources Sources of Voltage Dips Sources of Short Supply Interruptions Effects IT Equipment and Control Systems Contactors and Relays Induction Motors Syncfhronous Motors Variable Speed Drives High-Pressure Discharge Lamps Mitigation Reduction of the Number of Faults Reduction of the Fault Clearance Time Modification of the Supply System Configuration Voltage Stabilizers Improvement in Equipment Immunity Measurement Principles of Measurement Statistical Methods of Analysis Area of Vulnerability Contract Duration of Measurements Reference Voltage Value Location and Method of Connection of Measuring Instrument Technical Specifications for Measuring Instrumentation Threshold Values for Disturbance Detection Techniques of Reporting the Measurement Results Methods for Aggregation of Measurement Results Standards Alternative Voltage Dip Indices Indices Based on the Voltage Change Energy-Related Indices Others 129

5 CONTE Acknowledgement 131 Bibliography 131 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker 135 Araceli Hernändez Bayo 5.1 Description of the Phenomenon Voltage Changes, Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker Physiology of Flicker Perception Parameters Measurement The IEC Flickermeter Use of the Flickermeter Simplified Methods for P st Assessment Sources Industrial Loads Electrical Appliances Supplied from LV Networks Wind Turbine Generation Systems Effects Mitigation Strategies Devices Based on Decreasing Reactive Power Variations Methods Oriented to Increase the Short-Circuit Power Other Solutions for Flicker Mitigation 161 Bibliography 161 Voltage and Current Unbalance 163 Irena Wasiak / 6.1 Description of the Phenomena Symmetrical Components of Currents and Voltages Parameters Measurements Sources Effects Asynchronous Motors Synchronous Generators Converters Other Loads Mitigation Principle of Balancing Static Compensators Standards Limits Principles of Assessment 183 Bibliography 184

6 7 Voltage and Current Harmonics 187 Angelo Baggini and Zbigniew Hanzelka 7.1 Description of the Phenomena Composition of Distorted Waveform Decomposition of Distorted Waveform Harmonics and Symmetrical Components Classification of Distortion Components Quantities Describing Voltage and Current Distortion Parameters Measurements Sources of Current Harmonics Transformers Motors and Generators Are Furnaces Fluorescent Lighting Electronic and Power Electronic Equipment Harmonie Current Values/Magnitudes for Selected Loads Voltage and Current Harmonics Effects Mitigat Power Factor Overheatingi of Phase and Neutral Conductors Skin Effect Motors and Generators Transformers Capacitors Light Sources Nuisance Tripping of Circuit-Breakers Earth-Fault Currents Converters and Electronic Equipment Measuring Instruments Relay and Contactor Protective Systems Telecommunications Interference ion Methods of Voltage Distortion Reduction Reduction of Harmonie Emission Reduction of the Coupling Between Sensitiv Load and Harmonie Source Reduction of Load Sensitivity to Disturbances Standards 257 Bibliography 259

7 Overvoltages 263 Franco Bua, Francesco Buratti and Alan Ascolari 8.1 Description of the Phenomena Continuous (Power Frequency) Voltage Temporary Overvoltage Transient Overvoltage Combined Overvoltage Overvoltage Propagation Parameters Lightning Impulse Protective Level of a Surge Arrester Switching Impulse Protective Level of a Surge Arrester Sources Internal Overvoltages External Overvoltages Effects Breakdown Consequences Reduction of Overvoltage Risk and Level Mitigation Principles of Protection Insulation Coordination Overvoltage Protective Devices Standards v Insulation Coordination 296 Bibliography 298 Analysis of Waveforms in Modern Power Systems 299 Johan Rens and Piet Swart 9.1 Frequency Analysis of Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms: Practical Considerations Analog-to-Digital Conversion Signal-to-Noise Ratio Spectral Leakage and Aliasing Spectral Leakage and Windowing Metrological Features of Measurement System Harmonie Power Measurement in Non-simultaneous Sampling Sequence Component Analysis Fortesque Transform Redefined for Non-sinusoidal Circuits Three-Wire Power System Analysis Four-Wire Power System Analysis EEEE 1459: Power Defmitions for Modern Power Systems Voltage and Current Quantities under Non-sinusoidal Unbalanced Conditions Apparent Power Defmitions 324

8 9.4.3 Arithmetic Apparent Power The Vector Apparent Power The Effective Apparent Power Harmonie Pollution and Unbalance Fundamental Frequency Active and Reactive Power Power Factor Definitions Localization of Sources of Waveform Distortion in a Modern Power System 328 Bibliography Earthing 331 Franco Bua, Francesco Buratti and Antoni Klajn 10.1 Typical Earthing System Electric Resistivity of Soil Electrical Properties of the Earth Electrodes Resistance and Impedance to Earth Voltage-to-Earth and Surface Potential Distribution Properties of Earth Electrodes at Lightning Currents Typical Earth-Electrode Constructions Simple Horizontal Earth Electrodes Simple Rod, Vertical Earth Electrodes Simple, Combined Earth Electrodes Meshed Earth Electrodes Foundation Earth Electrodes Cable with Earthing Effect Earthing Arrangements in Protection Against Electric Shock Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in LV Networks Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in HV Networks Role of Earthing in Electronic and Telecommunication Systems Protective and Functional Earthing Combined Earthing System Safety Aspects Functionality Aspects Disturbances and Coupling Mechanisms Low-Noise Equipotential Bonding Lifetime Aspects of the Earthing Arrangements Chemical Corrosion Corrosion Caused by Stray (Direct) Currents Galvanic (Electrochemical) Corrosion Measurements of Earthing Arrangements Measurement of Soil Resistivity Measurement of Resistance to Earth of an Earth Electrode 377 Bibliography 380

9 11 Reliability of Electricity Supply: Structure Angelo Baggini, David Chapman and Francesco Buratti Basic Schemes of Electrical Grids Simple Radial System RingScheme Double Radial Scheme Meshed Scheme Compound Scheme General Criteria for the Study and Choice of the Schemes Parameters and Basic Conditions Scheme of the Grid as a Link Between Supplies and Loads Characteristics of the Installation The System Supply Section and End Section The Standard and Preferential Functions 400 Bibliography Reliability of Electricity Supply: Appliances and Equipment 403 Roberto Villafäfila-Robles and Joan Bergas-Jane Power Quality, Reliability and Availability General Aspects of Reliability Appliances Power System Protection Alternatives Power Conditioners Emergency and Standby Power Systems Engine-Driven Generators Microturbine-Driven Generators Uninterruptible Power Systems Dynamic UPS Static UPS Hybrid Static/Dynamic UPS D.C. Power Supply Systems Technological Comparison Dynamic UPS Systems Modern Flywheels Components Classification Application Future Developments and Applications Static UPS System Components Classification UPS Technology

10 Application Future Developments and Applications Good Engineering Practice 442 Bibliography Monitoring Power Quality 445 Andreas Sumper and Samuel Galceran-Arellano 13.1 Monitoring Objectives Benefits of Power Quality Monitoring Measurement Issues Measurement Chain R.M.S. Measurement Transients Measurement Sampling Rate Bandwidth Amplitude/Frequency Accuracy Precision Resolution Measurement Aggregation Algorithm Selection of Monitoring Instruments General Features of Monitoring Instruments Signal Input/Output Functions Successful Power Quality Monitoring Power Quality Program Managing Monitoring Projects Immunization Program Postprocessing Monitoring Results Interpreting Monitoring Results Data Collection and Monitoring Systems Software and Data Analysis Tools Power Quality Data Interchange Format (PQDIF) 461 Bibliography Static Converters and Power Quality 463 Mircea Chindris and Antoni Sudriä-Andreu 14.1 Impact of Static Converters on the Supply Network Industrial Equipment Control and Informatics Equipment Solutions Electromagnetic Compatibility Issues Impact on Loads Supplied by Power Converters 481

11 14.2 Impact of Supply Network Disturbances on Static Converters Impact of Voltage Disturbances on Static Converters Voltage Sag Susceptibility Immunization Techniques 490 Bibliography Compensation of Reactive Power 499 Stefan Fassbinder and Alan Ascolari 15.1 Basics Characteristics of Inductances and Capacitances Reactive Power Wattless current Reactive Power Compensator Power Factor Correction Control and Regulation of Reactive Power Centrally and Dispersed Compensation Detuning Passive Filters Dedicated Filtenng Circuits for Individual Frequencies Central and Dispersed Solution L/C Ratio Sound Frequency Signals 518 Bibliography Distributed Generation and Power Quality 521 Vu Van Thong and Johan Driesen 16.1 Distribution Network Modeling Steady-State Modeling Dynamic Modeling Power Quality and DG Voltage Rise Voltage Dips Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker Harmonics Unbalance Direct Current 526 Bibliography Electricity Market 529 Pieter Vermeyen and Johan Driesen 17.1 Market Players Electricity Producers Grid Operators 530

12 Electricity Retailers Regulators Contract Types Residential Customers Small Businesses Small and Medium-Sized Companies Large Companies Load Management in the Electricity Market Reason for Load Management Multiple Electricity Tariff Real-Time Pricing Contracts for Reducing Consumption Intelligent Energy Meter Other Techniques Power Quality in the Electricity Market Power Quality Contracts Power Quality Market 542 Bibliography Cost of Poor Power Quality 545 Roman Targosz and Jonathan Manson 18.1 Exploring PQ Cost StaffCost Work in Progress Equipment Malfunctioning Equipment Damage Other Costs Specific Costs Savings Studies on Cost of Poor PQ Long Interruptions Short Interruptions Voltage Dips Harmonics Other Disturbances Profiles by Sector Cost Per Event of PQ Disturbances PQ Solutions nvestment Analysis to Mitigate Costs of PQ Investment Analysis Capital Budgeting Project Classifications Cost of Capital The Time Value of Money Future Value of a Single Cash Flow 585

13 Present Value of a Single Cash Flow and of a Cash Flow Stream Deterministic Approach to PQ Investment Analysis Discounted Cash Flow Methods Non Discounted Cash Flow Methods Break-even Analysis 591 Bibliography Power Quality and Rational Use of Energy 593 Pieter Vermeyen and Johan Driesen 19.1 Reasons for Rational Use of Energy Sustainable Development Economic Considerations Electricity Industry Techniques for Rational use of Energy Adapted Use of Electrical Systems Efficient Loads Variable Tariffs Impact on Power Quality Emission of Harmonie Distortion by Fluorescent Lamps Emission of Harmonie Distortion by VSDs Immunity of Fluorescent Lamps Immunity of VSDs 603 Bibliography Perceived Power Quality 607 Maurizio Caciotta 20.1 Customer Definition Customer Requirements Analysis Process of the Customer with Respect to the Requirements Concerning the Product Multiplicity of Goods: Active Categories in the Territory of Rome 609 Bibliography 611 Index 613 Case Studies and Annexes Accessible on the Companion Website Annex 1 Angelo Baggini and Alan Ascolari

14 Annex 2 Angelo Baggini and Zbigniew Hanzelka Annex 3 Power Theory with Non-sinusoidal Waveforms Andrzej Firlit Annex 4 Series and Parallel Resonance Zbigniew Hanzelka