SIGNAL PROCESSING OF POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES
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1 SIGNAL PROCESSING OF POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES MATH H. J. BOLLEN IRENE YU-HUA GU IEEE PRESS SERIES I 0N POWER ENGINEERING IEEE PRESS SERIES ON POWER ENGINEERING MOHAMED E. EL-HAWARY, SERIES EDITOR IEEE PRESS \WILEY~ 'INTERSCIENCE A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
2 CONTENTS PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii xix 1 INTRODUCTION Modern View of Power Systems / Power Quality / Interest in Power Quality / Definition of Power Quality / Events and Variations / Power Quality Monitoring / Signal Processing and Power Quality / Monitoring Process / Decomposition / Stationary and Nonstationary Signals / Machine Learning and Automatic Classification / Electromagnetic Compatibility Standards / Basic Principles / Stochastic Approach / Events and Variations / Three Phases / 25 VII
3 VÜi CONTENTS 1.5 Overview of Power Quality Standards / Compatibility Between Equipment and Supply / Normal Operation / Normal Events / Abnormal Events / Distributed Generation / Impact of Distributed Generation on Current and Voltage Quality / Tripping of Generator Units / Conclusions / About This Book / 37 2 ORIGIN OF POWER QUALITY VARIATIONS Voltage Frequency Variations / Power Balance / Power-Frequency Control / Consequences of Frequency Variations / Measurement Examples / Voltage Magnitude Variations / Effect of Voltage Variations on Equipment / Calculation of Voltage Magnitude / Voltage Control Methods / Voltage Unbalance / Symmetrical Components / Interpretation of Symmetrical Components / Power Defmitions in Symmetrical Components: Basic Expressions / The <ig-transform / Origin of Unbalance / Consequences of Unbalance / Voltage Fluctuations and Light Flicker / Sources of Voltage Fluctuations / Description of Voltage Fluctuations / Light Flicker / Incandescent Lamps / Perception of Light Fluctuations / Flickercurve / Flickermeter Standard / 101
4 CONTENTS IX Flicker with Other Types of Lighting / Other Effects of Voltage Fluctuations / Waveform Distortion / Consequences of Waveform Distortion / Overview of Waveform Distortion / Harmonie Distortion / Sources of Waveform Distortion / Harmonie Propagation and Resonance / Summary and Conclusions / Voltage Frequency Variations / Voltage Magnitude Variations / Voltage Unbalance / Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker / Waveform Distortion / PROCESSING OF STATIONARY SIGNALS Overview of Methods / Parameters That Characterize Variations / Voltage Frequency Variations / Voltage Magnitude Variations / Waveform Distortion / Three-Phase Unbalance / Power Quality Indices / Total Harmonie Distortion / Crest Factor / Transformers: /st-factor / Capacitor Banks / Motors and Generators / Telephone Interference Factor / Three-Phase Harmonie Measurements / Power and Power Factor / Frequency-Domain Analysis and Signal Transformation / Continuous and Discrete Fourier Series / Discrete Fourier Transform / Estimation of Harmonics and Interharmonics / Sinusoidal Models and High-Resolution Line Spectral Analysis / Multiple Signal Classification / 233
5 X CONTENTS Estimation of Signal Parameters via Rotational Invariance Techniques / Kaiman Filters / Estimation of Broadband Spectrum / AR Models / ARMA Models / Summary and Conclusions / Frequency Variations / Voltage Magnitude Variations / Three-Phase Unbalance / Waveform Distortion / Methods for Spectral Analysis / General Issues / Further Reading / PROCESSING OF NONSTATIONARY SIGNALS Overview of Some Nonstationary Power Quality Data Analysis Methods / Non-Model-Based Methods / Model-Based Methods / Discrete STFT for Analyzing Time-Evolving Signal Components / Interpretation of STFT as Bank of Subband Filters with Equal Bandwidth / Time Resolution and Frequency Resolution / Selecting Center Frequencies of Bandpass Filters / Leakage and Selection of Windows / Discrete Wavelet Transforms for Time-Scale Analysis of Disturbances / Structure of Multiscale Analysis and Synthesis Filter Banks / Conditions for Perfect Reconstruction / Orthogonal Two-Channel PR Filter Banks / Linear-Phase Two-Channel PR Filter Banks / Possibility for Two-Channel PR FIR Filter Banks with Both Linear-Phase and Orthogonality / Steps for Designing Two-Channel PR FIR Filter Banks / Discussion / Consideration in Power Quality Data Analysis: Choosing Wavelets or STFTs? / 296
6 CONTENTS XI 4.4 Block-Based Modeling / Why Divide Data into Blocks? / Divide Data into Fixed-Size Blocks / Block-Based AR Modeling / Sliding-Window MUSIC and ESPRIT / Models Directly Applicable to Nonstationary Data / Kaiman Filters / Discussion: Sliding-Window ESPRIT/MUSIC Versus Kaiman Filter / Summary and Conclusion / Further Reading / STATISTICS OF VARIATIONS From Features to System Indices / Time Aggregation / Need for Aggregation / IEC / Voltage and Current Steps / Very Short Variations / Flagging / Phase Aggregation / Characteristics Versus Time / Arc-Furnace Voltages and Currents / Voltage Frequency / Voltage Magnitude / Very Short Variations / Harmonie Distortion / Site Indices / General Overview / Frequency Variations / Voltage Variations / Very Short Variations / Voltage Unbalance / Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker / Voltage Distortion / Combined Indices / 381
7 XII CONTENTS 5.5 System Indices / General / Frequency Variations / Voltage Variations / Voltage Fluctuations / Unbalance / Distortion / Power Quality Objectives / Point of Common Coupling / Voltage Characteristics, Compatibility Levels, and Planning Levels / Voltage Characteristics EN / Compatibility Levels: IEC / Planning Levels: IEC / Current Distortion by Customers: IEC ; IEEE Standard 519 / Current Distortion by Equipment: IEC / Other Power Quality Objectives / Summary and Conclusions / ORIGIN OF POWER QUALITY EVENTS Interruptions / Terminology / Causes of Interruptions / Restoration and Voltage Recovery / Multiple Interruptions / Voltage Dips / Causes of Voltage Dips / Voltage-Dip Examples / Voltage Dips in Three Phases / Phase-Angle Jumps Associated with Voltage Dips / Voltage Recovery After a Fault / Transients / What Are Transients? / Lightning Transients / Normal Switching Transients / Abnormal Switching Transients / Examples of Voltage and Current Transients / 509
8 CONTENTS XÜi 6.4 Summary and Conclusions / Interruptions / VoltageDips / Transients / Other Events / TRIGGERING AND SEGMENTATION Overview of Existing Methods / Dips, Swells, and Interruptions / Transients / Other Proposed Methods / Basic Concepts of Triggering and Segmentation / Triggering Methods / Changes in rms or Waveforms / High-Pass Filters / Detecting Singular Points from Wavelet Transforms / Prominent Residuais from Models / Segmentation / Basic Idea for Segmentation of Disturbance Data / Using Residuais of Sinusoidal Models / Using Residuais of AR Models / Using Fundamental-Voltage Magnitude or rms Sequences / Using Time-Dependent Subband Components from Wavelets / Summary and Conclusions / CHARACTERIZATION OF POWER QUALITY EVENTS Voltage Magnitude Versus Time / rms Voltage / Half-Cycle rms / Alternative Magnitude Definitions / Phase Angle Versus Time / Three-Phase Characteristics Versus Time / Symmetrical-Component Method / Implementation of Symmetrical-Component Method / Six-Phase Algorithm / Performance of Two Algorithms / 604
9 XIV CONTENTS 8.4 Distortion During Event / Single-Event Indices: Interruptions / Single-Event Indices: Voltage Dips / Residual Voltage and Duration / Depth of a Voltage Dip / Definition of Reference Voltage / Sliding-Reference Voltage / Multiple-Threshold Setting / Uncertainty in Residual Voltage / Point on Wave / Phase-Angle Jump / Single-Index Methods / Single-Event Indices: Voltage Swells / Single-Event Indices Based on Three-Phase Characteristics / Additional Information from Dips and Interruptions / Transients / Extracting Transient Component / Transients: Single-Event Indices / Transients in Three Phases / Additional Information from Transients / Summary and Conclusions / EVENT CLASSIFICATION Overview of Machine Data Learning Methods for Event Classification / Typical Steps Used in Classification System / Feature Extraction / Feature Optimization / Selection of Topologies or Architectures for Classifiers / Supervised/Unsupervised Learning / Cross-Validation / Classification / Learning Machines Using Linear Discriminants / Learning and Classification Using Probability Distributions / Hypothesis Tests and Decision Trees / Neyman-Pearson Approach / Bayesian Approach / 694
10 CONTENTS XV Bayesian Belief Networks / Example of Sequential Classification of Fault-Induced VoltageDips / Learning and Classification Using Artificial Neural Networks / Multilayer Perceptron Classifiers / Radial-Basis Function Networks / Applications to Classification of Power System Disturbances / Learning and Classification Using Support Vector Machines / Why Use a Support Vector Machine for Classification? / SVMs and Generalization Error / Case 1: SVMs for Linearly Separable Patterns / Case 2: Soft-Margin SVMs for Linearly Nonseparable Patterns / Selecting Kernels for SVMs and Mercer's Condition / Implementation Issues and Practical Examples of SVMs / Example of Detecting Voltage Dips Due to Faults / Rule-Based Expert Systems for Classification of Power System Events / Structure and Rules of Expert Systems / Application of Expert Systems to Event Classification / Summary and Conclusions / EVENT STATISTICS Interruptions / Interruption Statistics / IEEE Standard 1366 / Transmission System Indices / Major Events / Voltage Dips: Site Indices / Residual Voltage and Duration Data / ScatterPlot / Density and Distribution Functions / Two-Dimensional Distributions / SARFI Indices / Single-Index Methods / Year-to-Year Variations / Comparison Between Phase-Ground and Phase-Phase Measurements / 771
11 XVI CONTENTS 10.3 Voltage Dips: Time Aggregation / Need for Time Aggregation / Time Between Events / Chains of Events for Four Different Sites / Impact on Site Indices / Voltage Dips: System Indices / ScatterPlots / Distribution Functions / Contour Charts / Seasonal Variations / Voltage-Dip Tables / Effect of Time Aggregation on Voltage-Dip Tables / SARFI Indices / Single-Index Methods / Summary and Conclusions / Interruptions / Voltage Dips / Time Aggregation / Stochastic Prediction Methods / Other Events / CONCLUSIONS Events and Variations / Power Quality Variations / Power Quality Events / Itemization of Power Quality / Signal-Processing Needs / Variations / Variations and Events / Events / Event Classification / 819 APPENDIX A IEC STANDARDS ON POWER QUALITY 821 APPENDIX B IEEE STANDARDS ON POWER QUALITY 825 BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX
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