ARC FLASH HAZARD ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION
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1 ARC FLASH HAZARD ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION J.C. Das IEEE PRESS SERIES 0N POWER ENGINEERING Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Series Editor IEEE IEEE PRESS WILEY A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
2 CONTENTS Foreword Preface About the Author xix xxi xxiri 1 ARC FLASH HAZARDS AND THEIR ANALYSES Electrical Arcs Arc as a Heat Source Arcing Phenomena in a Cubicle Arc Flash Hazard and Personal Safety Time Motion Studies Arc Flash Hazards Arc Blast Electrical Shock Hazard Resistance of Human Body Fire Hazard Arc Flash Hazard Analysis Ralph Lee's and NFPA Equations IEEE 1584 Guide Equations Personal Protective Equipment Hazard Boundaries Working Distance Arc Flash Labels Maximum Duration of an Arc Flash Event and Arc Flash Boundary Arc Flash Hazard with Equipment Doors Closed Reasons for Internal Arcing Faults Arc Flash Hazard Calculation Steps NFPA Table 130.7(C)(15)(a) 32 v
3 Vi CONTENTS 1.14 Examples of Calculations Reducing Arc Flash Hazard 36 Review Questions 37 References 37 2 SAFETY AND PREVENTION THROUGH DESIGN: A NEW FRONTIER Electrical Standards and Codes Prevention through Design Limitations of Existing Codes, Regulations, and Standards Electrical Hazards Changing the Safety Culture Risk Analysis for Critical Operation Power Systems Existing Systems New Facilities Reliability Analysis Data for Reliability Evaluations Methods of Evaluation Reliability and Safety Maintenance and Operation Maintenance Strategies Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) Safety Integrity Level and Safety Instrumented System 55 Review Questions 57 References 57 3 CRITIQUE OF IEEE GUIDE 1584 ARC FLASH CALCULATIONS Variations of Arcing Currents Gap between Electrodes Variations of Incident Energy Some Anomalies in IEEE Equations Lee's Arc Model IEEE Experimental Model Setup Electrical Arc Burn Hazard Effect of Insulating Barriers Without Barrier With Barriers Arc Flash Test Models Alternate Equations Further Testing and Research 78
4 CONTENTS Vii 3.12 Effectiveness of PPE Calculated Based on IEEE 1584 Guide 79 Review Question 80 References 80 4 ARC FLASH HAZARD AND SYSTEM GROUNDING System and Equipment Grounding Solidly Grounded Systems Low Resistance Grounding High Resistance Grounded Systems Fault Detection, Alarms, and Isolation Ungrounded Systems Reactance Grounding Resonant Grounding Corner of Delta-Grounded Systems Surge Arresters Artificially Derived Neutrals Multiple Grounded Systems Comparison of Grounding Systems Arc Flash Hazard in Solidly Grounded Systems Protection and Coordination in Solidly Grounded Systems Self-Extinguishing Ground Faults Improving Coordination in Solidly Grounded Low Voltage Systems Ground Fault Coordination in Low Resistance Grounded Medium Voltage Systems Remote Tripping Ground Fault Protection of Industrial Bus-Connected Generators Directional Ground Fault Relays Monitoring of Grounding Resistors Selection of Grounding Systems 124 Review Questions 125 References SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO ANSI/IEEE STANDARDS FOR ARC FLASH ANALYSIS Types of Calculations Assumptions: Short-Circuit Calculations Short-Circuit Currents for Arc Flash Calculations 130
5 viii CONTENTS 5.2 Rating Structure of HV Circuit Breakers Low-Voltage Motors Rotating Machine Model Calculation Methods Simplified Method X/R<\ Simplified Method X/R > E/Z Method for AC and DC Decrement Adjustments Network Reduction Calculation Procedure Analytical Calculation Procedure Capacitor and Static Converter Contributions to Short-Circuit Currents Typical Computer-Based Calculation Results First-Cycle or Momentary Duty Calculations Interrupting Duty Calculations Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Duty Calculations Examples of Calculations Calculation of Short-Circuit Duties tf-rated 15 kv Circuit Breakers kV Circuit Breakers and Motor Starters Transformer Primary Switches and Fused Switches Low Voltage Circuit Breakers Thirty-Cycle Short-Circuit Currents Unsymmetrical Short-Circuit Currents S ingle Line-to-Ground Fault Double Line-to-Ground Fault Line-to-Line Fault Computer Methods Line-to-Ground Fault Line-to-Line Fault Double Line-to-Ground Fault 171 Review Questions 173 References ACCOUNTING FOR DECAYING SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS IN ARC FLASH CALCULATIONS Short Circuit of a Passive Element Systems with No AC Decay 179
6 CONTENTS IX 6.3 Reactances of a Synchronous Machine Leakage Reactance Sub-transient Reactance Transient Reactance Synchronous Reactance Quadrature-Axis Reactances Negative Sequence Reactance Zero Sequence Reactance Saturation of Reactances Time Constants of Synchronous Machines Open-Circuit Time Constant Subtransient Short-Circuit Time Constant Transient Short-Circuit Time Constant Armature Time Constant Synchronous Machine Behavior on Terminal Short Circuit Equivalent Circuits during Fault Fault Decrement Curve Short Circuit of Synchronous Motors and Condensers Short Circuit of Induction Motors A New Algorithm for Arc Flash Calculations with Decaying Short-Circuit Currents Available Computer-Based Calculations Accumulation of Energy from Multiple Sources Comparative Calculations 198 Review Questions 201 References PROTECTIVE RELAYING Protection and Coordination from Arc Flash Considerations Classification of Relay Types Design Criteria of Protective Systems Selectivity Speed Reliability Backup Protection Overcurrent Protection Overcurrent Relays Multifunction Overcurrent Relays IEC Curves 214
7 X CONTENTS 7.5 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers Molded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCBs) Current-Limiting MCCBs Insulated Case Circuit Breakers (ICCBs) Low Voltage Power Circuit Breakers (LVPCBs) Short-Time Bands of LVPCBs Trip Programmers Short-Circuit Ratings of Low Voltage Circuit Breakers Single-Pole Interrupting Capability Short-Time Ratings Series-Connected Ratings Fuses Current-Limiting Fuses Low Voltage Fuses High Voltage Fuses Electronic Fuses Interrupting Ratings Application of Fuses for Arc Flash Reduction Low Voltage Motor Starters Medium Voltage Motor Starters Low Voltage Switchgear Conductor Protection Load Current Carrying Capabilities of Conductors Conductor Terminations Considerations of Voltage Drops Short-Circuit Considerations Overcurrent Protection of Conductors Motor Protection Coordination with Motor Thermal Damage Curve Generator 51-V Protection Arc Flash Considerations 261 Review Questions 263 References UNIT PROTECTION SYSTEMS Overlapping the Zones of Protection Importance of Differential Systems for Arc Flash Reduction Bus Differential Schemes Overcurrent Differential Protection 272
8 STENTS Xi Partial Differential Schemes Percent Differential Relays High Impedance Differential Relays Sensitivity for Internal Faults High impedance Microprocessor-Based Multifunction Relays Low Impedance Current Differential Relays CT Saturation Comparison with High Impedance Relays Electromechanical Transformer Differential Relays Harmonic Restraint Microprocessor-Based Transformer Differential Relays CT Connections and Phase Angle Compensation Dynamic CT Ratio Corrections Security under Transformer Magnetizing Currents Piiot Wire Protection Modern Line Current Differential Protection The Alpha Plane Enhanced Current Differential Characteristics Examples of Arc Flash Reduction with Differential Relays 301 Review Questions 304 References ARC FAULT DETECTION RELAYS Principle of Operation Light Intensity Light Sensor Types Other Hardware Selective Tripping Supervision with Current Elements Applications Medium Voltage Systems Low Voltage Circuit Breakers Self-Testing of Sensors Examples of Calculation Arc Vault Protection for Low Voltage Systems 31? Detection System 32 Review Questions 3' References -
9 xii CONTENTS 10 OVERCURRENT COORDINATION Standards and Requirements Data for the Coordination Study Computer-Based Coordination Initial Analysis Coordinating Time Interval Relay Overtravel Fundamental Considerations for Coordination Settings on Bends of Time-Current Coordination Curves Coordination on Instantaneous Basis Selectivity between Two Series-Connected Current-Limiting Fuses Selectivity of a Current-Limiting Fuse Downstream of Noncurrent-Limiting Circuit Breaker Selectivity of Current-Limiting Devices in Series NEC Requirements of Selectivity Fully Selective Systems Selection of Equipment Ratings and Trip Devices Energy Boundary Curves The Art of Compromise 353 Review Questions 363 References TRANSFORMER PROTECTION NEC Requirements Arc Flash Considerations System Configurations of Transformer Connections Auto-Transfer of Bus Loads Through Fault Current Withstand Capability Category I Category II Category III and IV Observation on Faults during Life Expectancy of a Transformer Dry-Type Transformers Constructing the Through Fault Curve Analytically Protection with Respect to Through Fault Curves 381
10 CONTENTS Xiii 11.6 Transformer Primary Fuse Protection Valuations in the Fuse Characteristics Single Phasing and Ferroresonance Other Considerations of Fuse Protection Overcurrent Relays for Transformer Primary Protection Listing Requirements Effect of Transformer Winding Connections Requirements of Ground Fault Protection Through Fault Protection Primary Fuse Protection Primary Relay Protection Overall Transformer Protection A Practical Study for Arc Flash Reduction System Configuration Coordination Study and Observations Arc Flash Calculations: High Hazard Risk Category (HRC) Levels Reducing HRC Levels with Main Secondary Circuit Breakers Maintenance Mode Switches on Low Voltage Trip Programmers Addition of Secondary Relay 408 Review Questions 411 References CURRENT TRANSFORMERS Accuracy Classification of CTs Metering Accuracies Relaying Accuracies Relaying Accuracy Classification X Accuracy Classification T Constructional Features of CTs Secondary Terminal Voltage Rating Saturation Voltage Saturation Factor CT Ratio and Phase Angle Errors Interrelation of CT Ratio and C Class Accuracy Polarity of Instrument Transformers 424
11 xiv CONTENTS 12.7 Application Considerations Select CT Ratio Make a Single-Line Diagram of the CT Connections CT Burden Short-Circuit Currents and Asymmetry Calculate Steady-State Performance Calculate Steady-State Errors Series and Parallel Connections of CTs Transient Performance of the CTs CT Saturation Calculations Effect of Remanence Practicality of Application CTs for Low Resistance-Grounded Medium Voltage Systems Future Directions 437 Review Questions 440 References ARC-RESISTANT EQUIPMENT Calculations of Arc Flash Hazard in Arc-Resistant Equipment Probability of Arcing Fault Qualifications in IEEE Guide Accessibility Types Type Type Suffix B Suffix C Suffix D IEC Accessibility Types Arc-Resistant Ratings Duration Ratings Device-Limited Ratings 448 J Effect of Cable Connections Testing According to IEEE Guide Criterion Criterion Criterion Criterion 4 452
12 CONTENTS XV 13.6J Criterion Maintenance Pressure Relief Venting and Plenums Venting into Surrounding Area Plenums Cable Entries 457 Review Questions 459 References RECENT TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS Statistical Data of Arc Flash Hazards Zone-Selective Interlocking Low Voltage ZSI Systems Zone Interlocking in Medium Voltage Systems Microprocessor-Based Low Voltage Switchgear Microprocessor-Based Switchgear Concept Accounting for Motor Contributions Faults on the Source Side Arc Flash Hazard Reduction Low Voltage Motor Control Centers Desirable MCC Design Features Recent Design Improvements Higher Short-Circuit Withstand MCCs Maintenance Mode Switch Infrared Windows and Sight Glasses Fault Current Limiters Partial Discharge Measurements Online versus Offline Measurements Test Methods Current Signature Analysis: Rotating Machines Dissipation Factor Tip-Up 498 Review Questions 500 References ARC FLASH HAZARD CALCULATIONS IN DC SYSTEMS Calculations of the Short-Circuit Currents in DC Systems Sources of DC Short-Circuit Currents 504
13 xvi CONTENTS 15.3 IEC Calculation Procedures 505 ] 5.4 Short Circuit of a Lead Acid Battery Short Circuit of DC Motors and Generators Short-Circuit Current of a Rectifier Short Circuit of a Charged Capacitor Total Short-Circuit Current DC Circuit Breakers and Fuses DC Circuit Breakers DC Rated Fuses Arcing in DC Systems Equations for Calculation of Incident Energy in DC Systems Protection of the Semiconductor Devices Controlled Converters 536 Review Questions 537 References APPLICATION OF ETHERNET AND IEC COMMUNICATIONS IEC Protocol Modern leds Substation Architecture IEC Communication Structure Logical Nodes Ethernet Connection Networking Media Copper Twisted Shielded and Unshielded Fiber Optic Cable Network Topologies Prioritizing GOOSE Messages Technoeconomical Justifications Application to Arc Flash Relaying and Communications 556 Review Questions 556 References 556 Appendix A Statistics and Probability Applied to Electrical Engineering 558 A. 1 Mean Mode and Median 558 A.2 Mean and Standard Deviation 559
14 CONTENTS xvii A.3 Skewness and Kurtosis 560 A.4 Normal or Gaussian Distribution 561 A.5 Curve Fitting: Least Square Line 563 References 566 Appendix B Tables for Quick Estimation of Incident Energy and PPE in Electrical Systems 567 Index 605
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