Compensation of Reactive Power Case Study
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1 15 Compensation of Reactive Power Case Study Stefan Fassbinder and Alan Ascolari C15.1 FLUORESCENT LAMP Fluorescent lamps are the only common device where putting the most efficient way of compensation, at the point of origin within the luminaire, is common practice. Other compensation units are installed more centrally. In that case, if the compensator for fundamental reactive power were combined with a harmonics filter this would solve several problems at the same time with the same device. The risk of attracting pollution from the supply while sweeping one s own is not as high as generally assumed, at least not when the premises are supplied by their own distribution transformer. The voltage drop in a transformer, described in terms of its short-circuit voltage, is largely inductive. Therefore, a transformer with a short-circuit voltage rating of 4 % has a relative reactance of nearly 12 % at 150 Hz and close to 20 % at 250 Hz. If the neighboring premises also use their own transformers, the impedance between the two doubles again. However, the impedance of a transformer to harmonics varies a great deal depending upon: The vector group of the transformer, i.e. whether there is any winding in there or not. Whether the harmonic in question is triplen (its order is divisible by 3) or other order. But these are topics of dedicated experts [2]. The following series of single-phase measurements will show how acceptor circuits can effectively and cheaply mitigate harmonic problems. Handbook of Power Quality Edited by Angelo Baggini 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
2 106 For a single-phase model test, use, for example, two magnetic ballasts for 58 W fluorescent lamps. Their winding resistance is 13.8 and inductance 878 mh. Connecting them in series with capacitors, one with a capacitance of 1.3 F and one with 0.46 F, provides acceptor circuits with resonance frequencies of 150 Hz and 250 Hz. When connected to the mains in a residential area on a Saturday night during a football match when all the TV sets and a few compact fluorescent lamps are on and the electric stoves are off, the voltage may have a total harmonic distortion (THD) of around 4.7 %. This distortion consists mainly of the fifth harmonic contributing around 10 V, the others being insignificant. The third harmonic, though dominating the input currents of TV sets and similar appliances, has little effect upon the voltage as long as the loads are largely balanced. In a single-phase supply or if only one phase is loaded, this would not be the case. In a usual system, however, with the non-linear loads largely balanced, not very much happens in the 150 Hz filter. But in the 250 Hz filter, one will measure approximately 75 ma of 250 Hz current. This is double the current one finds at 50 Hz, even though a voltage of approximately 230 V is applied to the filter at 50 Hz and only about 10 V at 250 Hz. This underlines the basic filtering capability of the method. It has no measurable effect on the supplying voltage, though, because the filter s rating (670 ma, something around 180 var) is much too small and its winding resistance much too high to clean up a network loaded with an estimated 400 kva. To demonstrate its full capability, the filter model would have to clean up a network of adequate ratings, ideally with a substantial distortion that needs to be mitigated. This can be found if a phase-angle-controlled dimmer controlling an adequate load is in the network. An example would be dimming a 200 W incandescent lamp down to 100 W. The dimmer disengages the load from the mains to some extent and thus provides the desired island network. Logically, as the controlled load is purely resistive, the voltage at the lamp and the current through the lamp have the same heavy distortions, quantitatively and qualitatively. Can this be mitigated by means of said filters? The answer is yes (Figure C15.1). Paralleling the affected load with the two acceptor circuits reduces the THD of both voltage across and current through the load from about 61 % to about 37 %. In many cases this degree Figure C15.1 Voltage and current of a 200 W incandescent lamp dimmed down to 100 W, ordinary and with third- and fifth-harmonic acceptor circuits
3 107 of improvement is just enough to move from a disturbed to a functioning system. Nobody needs an absolutely clean sine wave, except certain measurement labs. The results also reveal that the 150 Hz acceptor circuit is no longer idling and is in no way superfluous. Rather, it contributes to the largest part of the improvement. Its current is now 395 ma at 150 Hz (in addition to 22 ma at 250 Hz slightly assisting the other acceptor circuit). The 250 Hz current in the 250 Hz filter is 184 ma still significant, but less than the 150 Hz current. This is typical for a single-phase load, operated more or less in isolation from the mains. Of course a 350 Hz filter could be added, but that does not address the core of the problem. Despite the presence of third- and fifth-harmonic filters, the third (34 V) and the fifth (26 V) still each exceed the share of the seventh (Figure C15.1) even though a 350 Hz filter is missing. The filters under test appear to have a quality problem. Indeed 13.8 of active resistance is quite high. If the 150 Hz impedance of the third-harmonic acceptor circuit were zero, as it would be ideally, the 150 Hz voltage would also have to be zero. What we find in reality is a voltage of 34 V driving a current of 395 ma in the 150 Hz filter and 26 V driving 184 ma in the 250 Hz filter. Both yield much more than There must therefore be substantially more losses through eddy currents and hysteresis due to poor steel quality. Inductance vagaries (variation with current, non-constant inductance, etc.) hamper a precise tuning to a targeted frequency. This shows how important it is to choose high-quality components, especially with respect to the reactor, since it causes most of the losses and inaccuracies. All resistive/eddy current/hysteresis losses end up with inaccurate filter tuning, so it is most important to select dedicated high-quality components instead of using readily available reactors which are cheap but were designed for a different purpose, where losses, tolerances and inconsistency of ratings do not matter so much. Passive filtering already is one of the least costly methods of dealing with harmonics. It consists only of a minor modification to the reactive power compensator in operation, so further skimping will turn out to be quite expensive at the end of the day. C15.2 PFC IN AN INDUSTRIAL PLANT This case study explains a report on the calculation of stresses on PFC (Power Factor Correction) units due to harmonic currents generated by non-linear loads installed in a steelworks. Plant load, estimated to be around 40 MVA, is formed by a big amount of small loads fed by power converters: this a big disturbance source is for the installation in terms of harmonic content. The experience described in this section constitutes an example of on-field verification of the effects of harmonic disturbances on two PFC units in a harmonics-critical environment. C Description of the System The plant serving the steelworks is fed by an overhead HV line (220 kv) through a HV/MV 220/10.95 kv transformer, with rated power equal to 30/40 MVA (ONAN/ONAF). The MV network has a radial scheme and cable connections (Figure C15.2).
4 108 Figure C15.2 Scheme of the plant Inside the plant several non-linear loads are installed, most of them being 6-pulse and 12-pulse power converters, with different power, feeding the production plant machineries. A production line has been designed and realized for processing products of different sizes and types, which means that it is possible to have different process types each one producing a different harmonic spectrum. Since this is a semi-automatic production line, the number of products and their positions are random factors. The direct consequence is a continuous and unforeseeable variation of the harmonic spectrum in the plant. C Design of the PFC System On the basis of calculations for the required reactive power system, the customer requested the installation of two three-phase units, each one with rated power equal to 8400 kvar at 13 kv. C Calculation of Thermal and Dielectric Stresses Since no data related to harmonic pollution was available, the waveform to be used for calculations has been assumed on the basis of: type of converter; data in the literature for the typical spectrum of the installed converters.
5 109 Since the load is formed by several small-power VSDs and since it is not possible to know phase displacements, the overall current calculation has been made through the sum of the r.m.s. values of the components with the same frequency, according to two methodologies: The arithmetic sum, as if the harmonics had identical phase angle (limit and worst situation). As a quadratic sum (square root of the sum of square values), assuming that some components were compensated by others because of the phase angles. It is important to remember that this method, though without any theoretical basis, is used in common practice and largely mentioned in the technical literature. Considering the nature of plant loads it has been decided to adopt a detuned PFC system with three single-phase series reactors (blocking reactors). The choice of the unit characteristics has been made by comparing stresses resulting on the capacitors due to voltage harmonics coming from non-linear loads, calculated by considering three different tunings which are commonly used for this type of installation: 189 Hz (Case A); 204 Hz (Case B); 210 Hz (Case C). The calculation of thermal and dielectric stresses on the PFC unit has been performed with a mathematical model (based on the circuit in Figure C15.3) of the whole system for each one of the tuning frequencies. The components in Figure C15.3 are as follows: I hl is the hth load harmonic current; L N, R N are network parameters at the point of common coupling (PCC); I hn is the hth harmonic current; L, C are PFC unit parameters; I hf is the hth harmonic in the PFC unit. Table C15.1 and Table C15.2 show the results of dielectric stress for the three different tunings calculated by the quadratic and algebraic sum of harmonic current components. Calculations have been performed with a tolerance of 10 % on the supply voltage. Figure C15.3 Circuit model
6 110 Table C15.1 Dielectric stresses calculated by quadratic sum of harmonic currents Voltage components Case A Case B Case C PFC unit Fundamental (kv) th (kv) th (kv) th (kv) th (kv) Total algebraic sum (kv) Total quadratic sum (kv) Table C15.2 Dielectric stresses calculated by algebraic sum of harmonic currents Voltage components Case A Case B Case C PFC unit Fundamental (kv) th (kv) th (kv) th (kv) th (kv) Total algebraic sum (kv) Total quadratic sum (kv) Table C15.3 shows the results of thermal stress for the three different tunings calculated by the quadratic sum of harmonic current components. The same calculations have been made using the algebraic sum of harmonic current components, shown in Table C15.4. Table C15.3 PFC unit total currents (two units), quadratic sum (results refer to one unit) Current components Case A Case B Case C PFC Network PFC Network PFC Network Fundamental (A) I N I N I N 5th (A) th (A) th (A) th (A) Total quadratic sum (A) I N I N I N
7 Table C15.4 PFC unit total currents (two units), algebraic sum (results refer to one unit) 111 Current components Case A Case B Case C PFC Network PFC Network PFC Network Fundamental (A) I N I N I N 5th (A) th (A) th (A) th (A) Total quadratic sum (A) I N I N I N C Parameters of the PFC System On the basis of simulation results and after evaluation of the related stresses on the units it was decided to realize the PFC system with tuning on 210 Hz. This choice gives a higher safety margin to avoid resonance phenomena, even if its consequence is a slight increase in the sizing of the components. This solution anyway allows the adoption of smaller reactors, with a benefit in terms of reduced losses. Also for the thermal sizing of the reactors, considering the uncertainty on the real harmonic contents of the system, a derating approach has been adopted in order to obtain a higher safety margin. On the basis of calculations made, it has been proposed to realize a PFC system divided into two units, each one as a double unbalanced star (3 + 2) with the possibility to easily modify the tuning frequency to approximately 225 Hz, through the adoption of a further capacitor per phase and per section and the addition of a second couple of units tuned on a frequency between the 11th and the 13th harmonics. The main data is shown in Table C15.5. It should be pointed out that the choice of this PFC system brings several advantages. Besides those advantages coming from the detuning inductance being a filter for the harmonics present in the network, this system limits remarkably the inrush current, thus avoiding component stresses. Table C15.5 Main unit data Units 2 Rated voltage (kv) 13 Rated frequency (Hz) 50 Rated power (kvar) 8400 Capacity ( F) Inductance (mh) 3.83 Inductance thermal current (A) 600 Unit type Double Y Tuning frequency (Hz) 210
8 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Clewing M., Statische USV im Leistungsbereich unter 6 kva, etz. Elektrotechnishe Zeitschrift, vol. 3 4, p. 26, [2] Fender M., Vergleichende Untersuchungen der Netzrückwirkungen von Umrichtern mit Zwischenkreis bei Beachtung realer industrieller Anschluss-Strukturen, PhD Thesis, Wiesbaden, [3] IEC , Power transformers. Part 1 General, April [4] IEEE 519, Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems, [5] Just W., Hofmann W., Blindleistungs-Kompensation in der Betriebspraxis, Fourth Edition, VDE Verlag, Offenbach, 2003.
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