INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONIC DESIGN
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1 INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONIC DESIGN J. EDWARD CARRYER R. MATTHEW OHLINE THOMAS W. KENNY Mechanical Engineering Stanford University Boston Amsterdam Delhi Columbus Cape Town Mexico City Indianapolis Dubai Sao Paulo New York London Sydney Madrid San Francisco Milan Hong Kong Munich Seoul Upper Saddle River Paris Singapore Montreal Taipei Toronto Tokyo
2 Contents Preface Trademark Acknowledgments About the Authors PART 1 INTRODUCTION 27 CHAPTER Philosophy 1.2 The Organization of This Book 1.3 Who Should Study Mechatronics? 1.4 How to Use This Book 1.5 Summary PART 2 SOFTWARE 33 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 What's a Micro? What's a Micro? Microprocessors, Microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors, and More Microcontroller Architecture The Central Processing Unit Representing Numbers in the Digital Domain The Arithmetic Logic Unit The Data Bus and the Address Bus Memory Subsystems and Peripherals Von Neumann Architecture The Harvard Architecture Real World Examples The Freescale MC9S12C32 Microcontroller The Microchip PIC12F609 Microcontroller Where to Find More Information Microcontroller Math and Number Manipulation Number Bases and Counting 3.3 Representing Negative Numbers 3.4 Data Types 3.5 Sizes of Common Data Types 3.6 Arithmetic on Fixed Size Variables 3.7 Modulo Arithmetic 3.8 Math Shortcuts 3.9 Boolean Algebra 3.10 Manipulating Individual Bits 3.11 Testing Individual Bits
3 6 Contents CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 Programming Languages Program Structures for Embedded Systems Software Design Machine Language Assembly Language High-Level Languages Interpreters Compilers Hybrid Compiler/Interpreters Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) Choosing a Programming Language Background Event Driven Programming Event Checkers Services Building an Event Driven Program An Example Summary of Event Driven Programming State Machines A State Machine in Software The Cockroach Example as a State Machine Building as a Metaphor for Creating Software Introducing Some Software Design Techniques Decomposition Abstraction and Information Hiding Pseudo-Code Software Design Process Generating Requirements Defining the Program Architecture The Performance Specification The Interface Specification Detail Design Implementation Unit Testing Integration The Sample Problem Requirements for the Morse Code Receiver The Morse Code Receiver System Architecture The Morse Code Receiver Software Architecture The Morse Code Receiver Performance Specifications The Morse Code Receiver Interface Specification The Morse Code Receiver Detail Design The Morse Code Receiver Implementation The Morse Code Receiver Unit Testing The Morse Code Receiver Integration
4 Contents 7 CHAPTER 7 Inter-Processor Communications Without a Medium, There Is No Message Bit-Parallel and Bit-Serial Communications Bit-Serial Communications Bit-Parallel Communications Signaling Levels TTL/CMOS Levels RS RS Communicating over Limited Bandwidth Channels Limited Bandwidth and Modems Communicating with Light Communicating over a Radio RF Remote Controls RF Data Links RF Networks CHAPTER 8 Microcontroller Peripherals Accessing the Control Registers The Parallel Input/Output Subsystem The Data Direction Register The Input/Output Register(s) Shared Function Pins Timer Subsystems Timer Basics Timer Overflow Output Compare Input Capture Combining Input Capture and Output Compare to Control an Engine Pulse Width Modulation PWM Using the Output Compare System The Analog-to-Digital Converter Subsystem The Process for Converting an Analog Input to a Digital Value The A/D Converter Clock Automating the A/D Conversion Process Interrupts PART3 ELECTRONICS 171 CHAPTER 9 Basic Circuit Analysis and Passive Components Voltage, Current, and Power Circuits and Ground Laying Down the Laws Resistance Resistors in Series and Parallel The Voltage Divider 179
5 8 Contents 9.5 Thevenin Equivalents Capacitors Capacitors in Series and Parallel Capacitors and Time-Varying Signals Inductors Inductors and Time-Varying Signals The Time and Frequency Domains Circuit Analysis with Multiple Component Types Basic RC Circuit Configurations Low-Pass RC Filter Behavior in the Time Domain High-Pass RC Filter Behavior in the Time Domain RL Circuit Behavior in the Time Domain Low-Pass RC Filter Behavior in the Frequency Domain High-Pass RC Filter Behavior in the Frequency Domain High-Pass RC Filter with a DC Bias Simulation Tools Limitations of Simulation Tools Real Voltage Sources Real Measurements Measuring Voltage Measuring Current Real Resistors A Model for a Real Resistor Resistor Construction Basics Carbon Film Resistors Metal Film Resistors Power Dissipation in Resistors Potentiometers Choosing Resistors Real Capacitors A Model for a Real Capacitor Capacitor Construction Basics Polar vs. Nonpolar Capacitors Ceramic Disk Capacitors Monolithic Ceramic Capacitors Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors Tantalum Capacitors Film Capacitors Electric Double Layer Capacitors/Super Capacitors Capacitor Labeling Choosing a Capacitor CHAPTER 10 Semiconductors Doping, Holes, and Electrons Diodes The V-I Characteristic for Diodes The Magnitude of V t Reverse Recovery Schottky Diodes Zener Diodes Light Emitting Diodes Photo-Diodes 231
6 Contents Bipolar Junction Transistors The Darlington Pair The Photo-Transistor 237 MOSFETs 238 Choosing between BJTs and MOSFETs When Will a BJT Be the Best (or Only) Choice? When Will a MOSFET Be the Best (or Only) Choice? How Do You Choose When Either a MOSFET or a BJT Could Work? 243 Multitransistor Circuits 243 Reading Transistor Data Sheets Reading a BJT Data Sheet Reading a MOSFET Data Sheet A Sample Application A Potpourri of Transistor Circuits CHAPTER 11 Operational Amplifiers Op-Amp Behavior Negative Feedback The Idea Op-Amp Analyzing Op-Amp Circuits The Golden Rules The Noninverting Op-Amp Configuration The Inverting Op-Amp Configuration The Unity Gain Buffer The Difference Amplifier Configuration The Summer Configuration The Trans-Resistive Configuration Computation with Op-Amps The Comparator Comparator Circuits CHAPTER 12 Real Operational Amplifiers and Comparators Real Op-Amp Characteristics How the Ideal Assumptions Fail Noninfinite Gain Variation in Open-Loop Gain with Frequency Input Current Is Not Zero The Output Voltage Source Is Not Ideal Other Nonidealities Reading an Op-Amp Data Sheet Maxima, Minima, and Typical Values The Front Page The Absolute Maximum Ratings Section The Electrical Characteristics Section The Packaging Section The Typical Applications Section Reading a Comparator Data Sheet Comparator Packaging Comparing Op-Amps
7 10 Contents CHAPTER 13 Sensors Sensor Output and Microcontroller Inputs.3 Sensor Design Measuring Temperature with a Thermistor Measuring Acceleration Definitions of Sensor Performance Characteristics.4 Fundamental Sensors and Interface Circuits Switches as Sensors Interfacing to Switches Resistive Sensors Interfacing to Resistive Sensors Capacitive Sensors Interfacing to Capacitive Sensors.5 A Survey of Sensors Light Sensors Strain Sensors Temperature Sensors Magnetic Field Sensors Proximity Sensors Position Sensors Acceleration Sensors Force Sensors Pressure Sensors CHAPTER 14 Signal Conditioning 14.1 Basic Operations in Signal Conditioning 14.2 Offset Removal Amplification Relative to an Offset Offset Removal by AC Coupling 14.3 Amplification Multistage Amplification with DC Coupling Multistage Amplification with AC Coupling 14.4 Filtering Filter Terminology What Is Noise and Where Does It Come From? Passive Filters 14.5 Other Signal Conditioning Techniques The Instrumentation Amplifier Peak Detection 14.6 Case Studies Information in the Amplitude Information in the Timing CHAPTER 15 Active and Digital Filters 15.1 Active Filters Phase Delay Filter Response Characteristics Active Filter Topologies
8 Contents Digital Techniques Digital Filtering Digital Signal Processing Synchronous Sampling CHAPTER 16 Digital Inputs and Outputs Representing Logical States Ideal Behavior for Digital Devices Real Behavior of Digital Devices Reading Device Data Sheets Digital Inputs Digital Input Voltage Requirements Digital Input Current Requirements Pull-Ups and Pull-Downs Digital Input Timing Requirements Digital Outputs Digital Output Voltage and Current Specifications Digital Output Timing Specifications Output Meets Input Evaluating Compatibility Pull-Ups and Pull-Downs for Disconnectable and Indeterminate Inputs Interconnecting Incompatible Devices CHAPTER 17 Digital Outputs and Power Drivers Totem-Pole Outputs Totem-Pole Output Specifications Open-Collector/Open-Drain Outputs Open-Collector/Open-Drain Output Specifications Three-State Outputs Three-State Output Specifications Low Side Drivers Low Side Driver Specifications High Side Drivers High Side Driver Specifications Half-Bridges and Full-Bridges Shoot-Through Currents and Dead Time H-Bridge Specifications Thermal Design Issues CHAPTER 18 Digital Logic and Integrated Circuits 18.1 Basic Combinatorial Logic Truth Tables Describing Microcontroller Subsystems Using Combinatorial Logic
9 12 Contents A Survey of Useful Functions Implemented with Combinatorial Logic The Digital Comparator The Digital Multiplexer The Decoder to Sequential Logic A Survey of Useful Functions Implemented with Sequential LOJ gic The D-Type Flip-Flop The J-K Flip-Flop The Counter The Shift Register Logic Families Using Available Logic Chips to Expand the Capabilities of a Microcontroller Using a Multiplexer to Expand Input Capabilities Using a Decoder to Expand Output Capabilities Using Shift Registers to Expand Input Capabilities Using Shift Registers to Expand Output Capabilities Using the SPI Subsystem with Shift Registers The 555 Timer Inside the 555 Timer Astable Operation Mono-Stable Operation Other Uses of the 555 Timer CHAPTER 19 A-to-D and D-to-A Converters 19.1 Interfacing between Digital and Analog Domains 19.2 Digitizing Continuous Signals 19.3 A/D and D/A Converter Performance Ideal A/D Converter Performance Sources of Error for A/D Converters Ideal D/A Converter Performance Sources of Error for D/A Converters 19.4 D/A Converter Designs Using Pulse Width Modulation to Generate Analog Voltaj Summing Amplifier D/A Converters String D/A Converters R-2R Ladder D/A Converters 19.5 A/D Converter Designs Single Slope and Dual Slope A/D Converters Flash A/D Converters Half-Flash A/D Converters Successive Approximation Register A/D Converters Sigma-Delta A/D Converters ;es CHAPTER 20 Voltage Regulators, Power Supplies, and Batteries Power Requirements and Power Sources 20.3 Voltage Regulators Voltage Regulator Terms and Definitions Linear Voltage Regulators Switch-Mode (Switching) Voltage Regulators
10 Contents Power Supplies Linear Power Supplies Switching Power Supplies Batteries and Electrochemical Cells Battery Performance and Characteristics Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries Battery Safety and Environmental Issues CHAPTER 21 Noise, Grounding, and Isolation Noise Coupling Channels Conductively Coupled Noise The Origins of the Conductive Coupling Channel Reducing Conductively Coupled Noise Reducing Noise at the Source: Decoupling Reducing the Coupling of Conductive Noise Reducing Conductive Noise at the Receptor: Power Supply Filtering Best Practices for Reducing Conductive Noise Capacitively Coupled Noise The Origins of the Capacitive Coupling Channel Reducing Capacitively Coupled Noise Reducing Capacitively Coupled Noise at the Source Reducing the Coupling of Capacitively Coupled Noise Shielding Reducing Capacitively Coupled Noise at the Receiver Best Practices for Reducing Capacitively Coupled Noise Inductively Coupled Noise The Origins of the Inductive Coupling Channel Reducing Inductively Coupled Noise at the Source Reducing the Coupling of Inductively Coupled Noise Reducing Inductively Coupled Noise at the Receptor Best Practices for Reducing Inductively Coupled Noise Isolation Optical Isolation Capacitive Isolation Inductive Isolation Comparing Isolation Technologies PART 4 ACTUATORS 557 CHAPTER 22 Permanent Magnet Brushed DC Motor Characteristics Subfractional Horsepower Permanent Magnet Brushed DC Motors Electrical Model Back-EMF and the Generator Effect Characteristic Constants for Permanent Magnet Brushed DC Motors Characteristic Equations for Constant Voltage Power Characteristics 567
11 14 Contents CHAPTER DC Motor Efficiency 22.9 Gearheads Permanent Magnet Brushed DC Motor Applications Inductive Kickback Inductive Kickback Summary Bidirectional Control of Motors Commercially Available H-Bridge Integrated Circuits H-Bridges for Higher Current Applications Speed Control with Pulse Width Modulation CHAPTER 24 CHAPTER 25 Solenoids Solenoid Construction 24.3 Solenoid Performance 24.4 Driving a Solenoid 24.5 Mechanical Response Time 24.6 Applications 24.7 Brushless DC Motors BLDC Motor Construction BLDC Motor Operation Sensored Commutation Sensor-less Commutation Driving a BLDC Motor Commutating a BLDC Motor BLDC Motor Driver Integrated Circuits Comparing Brushed and Brushless DC Motors CHAPTER 26 Stepper Motors Stepper Motor Construction 26.3 The Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 26.4 The Hybrid Stepping Motor 26.5 Comparing Stepping Motor Types 26.6 Stepper Motor Internal Wiring 26.7 Driving Stepper Motors 26.8 Stepping Sequences for Stepper Motors 26.9 Generating the Drive Sequences for Stepper Motors Stepper Motor Dynamics Stepper Motor Performance Specifications Optimizing Stepper Motor Performance with Drive Electronics The Role of Snubbing in Performance
12 Contents 15 CHAPTER 27 Other Actuator Technologies Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems Solenoid Valves Servo Valves Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators RC Servos Piezo Actuators Types of Piezo Actuators Shape Memory Alloy Actuators Summary CHAPTER 28 Basic Closed-Loop Control Terminology Open-Loop Control On-Off Closed-Loop Control Linear Closed-Loop Control Getting Started Getting Smarter Disturbance Rejection Improving Performance Further by Adding Derivative Control Choosing the Right Gains System Type and the Need for Integral Control Selecting the Control Loop Rate Ad Hoc Methods PART 5 MECHATRONIC PROJECTS AND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 699 CHAPTER 29 Rapid Prototyping Why Make Prototypes? Prototyping Philosophies: Build or Simulate? Rapid Prototyping of Mechanical Systems Solid Modeling Tools Modeling System Dynamics Foamcore, X-Acto Knives, and Hot Glue D Rapid Prototyping: Laser Cutting/LaserCAMM D Rapid Prototyping, Cheap! Tab and Slot Construction Toys D Rapid Prototyping: SLA, SLS, FDM, and Soft-Mold Castings Rapid Prototyping of Electrical Systems Schematic Capture and Circuit Simulation Tools Circuit Prototyping: Breadboards, Wire Wrap, and Perf Boards 715
13 16 Contents CHAPTER 30 CHAPTER 31 CHAPTER Prototype PCBs Soldering Technique 29.6 Suppliers and Resources 29.7 Project Planning and Management Increasing Project Complexity and the Need for Managing the Process 30.3 Planning and Executing a Project System Requirements Generating Design Candidates and Alternatives Design Concept Evaluation: Prototypes and Iteration Specifications 30.4 Management Tools Project Management Systems Engineering Troubleshooting Concurrent Design Communication and Documentation Pitfalls and Suggestions Staring into the Void An Ounce of Prevention Is Worth an AU-Nighter of Troubleshooting Troubleshooting Attitude Final Thoughts Mechatronic Synthesis The Project Description System Requirements Design Candidates and Alternatives Team Zero's Concepts Team InTheRuff s Concepts Review of the Design Candidates 32.5 Morphology Charts 32.6 Design Concept Evaluation: Prototypes and Iteration 32.7 Implementation Phase InTheRuff Drive Motor Choice Team Zero Ball Release Motor Choice Team Zero Beacon Sensor Circuit Evolution Team Zero Support Stiffness Issue Team Zero Compass Sensor Failure 32.8 The Completed Designs Team InTheRuff Team Zero
14 Contents Performance Results Gems of Wisdom from the Students 779 Appendix A Resistor Color Code and Standard Values 781 Appendix В Sample С Code 783 Appendix С Project Description for the Chapter 32 Case Study 795 Index 799
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