LLE,C, T~ _~C~~i.~ Paul Horowitz HARVARD UNIVERSITY Winffield H ill ~_~ CAMBRIDGE ", ~' UNIVERSITY PRESS

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1 LLE,C, T~ _~C~~i.~ uc Paul Horowitz HARVARD UNIVERSITY Winffield H ill ROWLAND INSTITUTE FOR SCIENCE, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS ~_~ CAMBRIDGE ", ~' UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 CONTENTS List of tables Preface xix xvi Preface to first edition CHAPTER1 FOUNDATIONS 1 Introduction 1 xxi Voltage, current, and resistance Frequency analysis of reactive circuits RC filters Phasor diagrams "Poles" and decibels per octave Resonant circuits and active filters Other capacitor applications Th6venin's theorem generalized Voltage and current Relationship between voltage and Diodes and diode circuits 44 current: resistors Diodes Voltage dividers Rectification Voltage and current sources Power-supply filtering Th6venin's equivalent circuit Rectifier configurations for power 1.06 Small-signal resistance 13 supplies Regulators 48 Signals Circuit applications of diodes Sinusoidal signals Inductive loads and diode 1.08 Signal amplitudes and protection 52 decibels 16 Other passive components Other signals Logic levels Electromechanical devices Signal sources Indicators Variable components 57 Capacitors and ac circuits 20 Additional exercises Capacitors RC circuits : Vand I versus CHAPTER 2 time 23 TRANSISTORS Difi'erentiators 25 Introduction Integrators First transistor model : current Inductors and transformers 28 amplifier Inductors 28 Some basic transistor circuits Transformers Transistor switch 63 Impedance and reactance Emitter follower 65

3 Viii CONTENTS 2.04 Emitter followers as voltage Basic FET circuits 124 regulators JFET current sources Emitter follower biasing FET amplifiers Transistor current source Source followers Common-emitter amplifier 76 3,09 FET gate current Unity-gain phase splitter 77 3,10 FETs as variable resistors Transconductance 78 FET switches 140 Ebers-Moll model applied to basic transistor circuits FET analog switches Limitations of FET switches Improved transistor model : 3.13 Some FET analog switch transconductance amplifier 79 examples The emitter follower revisited MOSFET logic and power 2.12 The common-emitter amplifier switches 153 revisited MOSFET handling 2.13 Biasing the common-emitter precautions 169 amplifier Current mirrors 88 Self-explanatory circuits Circuit ideas Some 171 amplifier building blocks Bad circuits 171 vskip6pt 2.15 Push-pull output stages Darlington connection Bootstrapping Differential amplifiers Capacitance and Miller effect Field-effect transistors Introduction to Some typical feedback 175 transistor circuits 104 4,02 Operational amplifiers Regulated power supply The golden rules Temperature controller 105 Basic op-amp circuits Simple logic with transistors and 4,04 Inverting amplifier 177 diodes Noninverting amplifier 178 Self-explanatory circuits Follower Good circuits Current sources Bad circuits Basic cautions for op-amp Additional exercises 107 circuits 182 CHAPTER 3 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 113 Introduction 113 CHAPTER 4 FEEDBACK AND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 175 Introduction 175 An op-amp smorgasbord Linear circuits Nonlinear circuits 187 A detailed look at op-amp behavior FET characteristics Departure from ideal op-amp 3.02 FET types 117 performance Universal FET characteristics Effects of op-amp limitations on 3.04 FET drain characteristics 121 circuit behavior Manufacturing spread of FET 4.13 Low-power and programmable characteristics 122 op-amps 210

4 CONTENTS ix A detailed look at selected op-amp 4.37 Bad circuits 250 circuits 213 Additional exercises Logarithmic amplifier Active peak detector 217 CHAPTER Sample-and-hold 220 ACTIVE FILTERS AND 4.17 Active clamp 221 OSCILLATORS Absolute-value circuit 221 Active filters Integrators Frequency response with RC 4.20 Differentiators 224 filters 263 Op-amp operation with a single power 5.02 Ideal performance with LC supply 224 filters Enter active filters : an 4.21 Biasing single-supply ac overview 266 amplifiers 225 S.Q4 Key filter performance 4.22 Single-supply op-amps 225 criteria 267 Comparators and Schmitt trigger Filter types Comparators 229 Active filter circuits Schmitt trigger VCVS circuits VCVS filter design using our Feedback with finite-gain amplifiers simplified table State-variable filters Gain equation Twin-T notch filters Effects of feedback on amplifier 5.10 Gyrator filter realizations 281 circuits Switched-capacitor filters Two examples of transistor amplifiers with feedback 236 Oscillators 284 Some typical op-amp circuits Introduction to oscillators Relaxation oscillators General-purpose lab amplifier The classic timer chip: 4.29 Voltage-controlled oscillator 240 the JFET linear switch with RON 5.15 Voltage-controlled oscillators compensation Quadrature oscillators TTL zero-crossing detector Wien bridge and LC Load-current-sensing circuit 242 oscillators LC oscillators 297 Feedback amplifier frequency 5.19 Quartz-crystal oscillators compensation Gain and phase shift versus frequency Amplifier compensation methods Frequency response of the feedback network 247 Self-explanatory circuits Circuit ideas 303 Additional exercises 303 CHAPTER 6 VOLTAGE REGULATORS AND POWER CIRCUITS 307 Self-explanatory circuits 250 Basic regulator circuits with the 4.36 Circuit ideas 250 classic

5 x CONTENTS 6.01 The 723 regulator 307 CHAPTER Positive regulator 309 PRECISION CIRCUITS AND LOW-NOISE 6.03 High-current regulator 311 TECHNIQUES 391 Heat and power design 312 Precision op-amp design techniques 6.04 Power transistors and heat 391 sinking Foldback Precision versus current limiting dynamic 316 range 6.06 Overvoltage 391 crowbars Error.07 Further considerations budget 392 in high current Example circuit power-supply design : precision 320 amplifier 608. Program mable with automatic supplies 321 null offset 392 7, A Power-supply circuit precision-design example 323 error Other regulator budget 1Cs ,onen Compterrors 395 The unregulated supply Amplifier input errors ac line components Amplifier output errors Transformer Auto-zeroing (chopper-stabilized) 6.13 do components 329 amplifiers 415 Voltage references 331 Differential and Instrumentation amplifiers 42' Zener diodes Bandgap (VaE) reference Differencing amplifier Three-terminal Standard three-op-amp and fou-rminal r te instrumentati regulators341on amplifier 425 6,16 Amplifier Three-terminal noise 428 regulators Three-terminal adjustable 7.11 Origins and kinds of noise 430 regulators Signal-to-noise ratio and noise 6.18 Additional comments about figure terminal regulators Transistor amplifier voltage and 6.19 Switching regulators and dc-dc current noise 436 converters Low-noise design with Special-purpose power-supply transistors 438 circuits 368 7,15 FET noise Selecting low-noise 6.20 transistors 445 High-voltage regulators Noise in differential 621 and feedback.-,ow-r Lownoise ldiftli suppes 374 amplifiers Micropower regulators Flying-capacitor (charge Noise pump) measurements and noise voltage converters sources Constant-current supplies Measurement without a noise 6.25 Commercial power-supply source 449 modules Measurement with noise Self-explanatory circuits 384 source Noise 626. and Circuit signal ideas sources Bandwidth 6.27 Bad limiting circuits and rms 384 voltage measurement Additional 453 exercises Noise potpourri 454

6 CONTENTS xi Interference : shielding and Monostable multivibrators 517 grounding One-shot characteristics Interference Monostable circuit example Signal grounds Cautionary notes about 7.25 Grounding between monostables 519 instruments Timing with counters 522 Self-explanatory circuits 466 Sequential functions available as ICs Circuit ideas 466 Additional exercises 466 CHAPTER 8 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 471 Basic logic concepts Digital versus analog Logic states Number codes Gates and truth tables Discrete circuits for gates Gate circuit example Assertion-level logic notation 482 TTL and CMOS Latches and registers Counters Shift registers Sequential PALS Miscellaneous sequential functions 541 Some typical digital circuits Modulo-n counter: a timing example Multiplexed LED digital display Sidereal telescope drive An n-pulse generator 548 Logic pathology Catalog of common gates do problems IC gate circuits Switching problems TTL and CMOS 8.35 Congenital weaknesses of TTL and characteristics 486 CMOS Three-state and open-collector devices 487 Self-explanatory circuits 556 Combinational logic Circuit ideas Bad circuits Logic identities 491 Additional exercises Minimization and Karnaugh maps 492 CHAPTER Combinational functions available DIGITAL MEETS ANALOG 565 as ICs Implementing arbitrary truth CMOS and TTL logic interfacing 565 tables Logic family chronology 565 Sequential logic Input and output characteristics Devices with memory : flip Interfacing between logic flops 504 families Clocked flip-flops Driving CMOS amd TTL 8.18 Combining memory and gates : inputs 575 sequential logic Driving digital logic from 8.19 Synchronizer 515 comparators and op-amps 577

7 xii CONTENTS 9.06 Some comments about logic 9.33 Feedback shift register inputs 579 sequences Comparators Analog noise generation from 9.08 Driving external digital loads from maximal-length sequences 658 CMOS and TTL Power spectrum of shift register 9.09 NMOS LSI interfacing 588 sequences Opto-electronics Low-pass filtering 660 Digital signals 9.37 and long wires Wrap-up Digital filters On-board interconnections Intercard connections Self-explanatory 601 circuits Data buses Circuit ideas Driving cables Bad circuits 668 Analog/digital conversion 612 Additional exercises Introduction to AID CHAPTER 10 conversion 612 MICROCOMPUTERS Digital-to-analog converters (DACs) 614 Minicomputers, microcomputers, and 9.17 Time-domain (averaging) microprocessors 673 DACs Computer architecture Multiplying DACs Choosing a DAC 619 A computer instruction set Analog-to-digital converters Assembly Charge-balancing language and machine techniques language Some unusual 678 AID and DIA Simplified converters instruction set Choosing an ADC A programming examl pe 683 Some AID conversion examples 636 Bus signals and Interfacing Channel AID dataacquisition - system d36 Fundamental bus signals: data, Digit address, voltmeter strobe Coulomb Programmed meter 110: 640 data out Programmed 110 : data in 689 Phase-locked loops Programmed 110 : status 9.27 registers Introduction 690 to phase-locked loops Interrupts Interrupt handling PLL design Interrupts 9.29 Design in example general : frequency Direct multiplier 647 memory access Summary PLL of capture and the IBM lock PC's bus signals Some PLL 704 applications Synchronous versus ash yncronous Pseudo-random bit sequences and noise bus communication 707 generation Other microcomputer buses Connecting Digital noise peripherals generation to the 655 computer 711

8 CONTENTS xiii Software system concepts 714 CHAPTER 12 ELECTRONIC CONSTRUCTION Programming 714 TECHNIQUES Operating systems, files, and use of memory 716 Prototyping methods 827 Data communications concepts Breadboards PC prototyping boards Serial communication and Wire-Wrap panels 828 ASCII 720 Printed circuits Parallel communication : Centronics, SCSI, IPI, PC board fabrication 830 GPIB (488) PC board design Local area networks Stuffing PC boards Interface example: hardware data Some further thoughts on PC packing 736 boards Number formats Advanced techniques 841 CHAPTER 11 MICROPROCESSORS 743 A detailed look at the Registers, memory, and IIO Instruction set and addressing Machine-language representation Bus signals 753 Instrument construction Housing circuit boards in an instrument Cabinets Construction hints Cooling Some electrical hints Where to get components 860 CHAPTER13 HIGH-FREQUENCY AND HIGH-SPEED TECHNIQUES 863 A complete design example : analog signal averager 760 High-frequency amplifiers Circuit design Transistor amplifiers at high Programming: defining the frequencies: first look 863 task High-frequency amplifiers : the ac Programming: details 777 model Performance Some afterthoughts A high-frequency calculation example High-frequency amplifier Microprocessor support chips 799 configurations A wideband design example Medium-scale integration Some refinements to the ac Peripheral LSI chips 802 model Memory The shunt-series pair Other microprocessors Modular amplifiers Emulators, development systems, Radiofrequency circuit elements 879 logic analyzers, and evaluation boards Transmission lines 879

9 xiv CONTENTS Stubs, baluns, and Power sources 920 transformers Tuned amplifiers Battery types , Radiofrequency circuit Wall-plug-in units ,04 elements 884 Solar cells Measuring amplitude or Signal contents 933 power 888 Power switching and micropower Radiofrequency communications : regulators 938 AM Power switching Some communications Micropower regulators 941 concepts Ground reference Amplitude modulation Micropower voltage references and Superheterodyne receiver 895 temperature sensors 948 Advanced modulation methods 897 Linear micropower design techniques Single sideband Frequency modulation ,10 Problems of micropower linear Frequency-shift keying 900 design Pulse-modulation schemes Discrete linear design example 950 Radiofrequency circuit tricks Micropower operational Special construction amplifiers 951 techniques Micropower comparators Exotic RF amplifiers and Micropower timers and devices 903 oscillators 965 High-speed switching 904 Micropower digital design Transistor model and CMOS families 969 equations Keeping CMOS low power Analog modeling tools Micropower microprocessors and peripherals 974 Some switching-speed examples Microprocessor design example: High-voltage driver 909 degree-day logger Open-collector bus driver 910 Self-explanatory circuits Example : photomultiplier preamp Circuit ideas 9$5 Self-explanatory circuits 913 CHAPTER Circuit ideas 913 MEASUREMENTS AND SIGNAL Additional exercises 913 PROCESSING, 987 CHAPTER 14 LOW-POWER DESIGN 917 Introduction Low-power applications 918 Overview 987 Measurement transducers Temperature Light level Strain and displacement 1001

10 CONTENTS xv Acceleration, pressure, force, APPENDIXES 1043 velocity 1004 Appendix A Magnetic field 1007 The oscilloscope Vacuum gauges Particle detectors 1008 Appendix B Biological and chemical Math review voltage 1050 probes 1012 Appendix C Precision standards and precision measurements 1016 The 5% resistor color code 1053 Appendix D 1% Precision resistors Frequency standards 1016 Appendix E Frequency, period, and time- How to draw schematic diagrams 1056 interval measurements 1019 Appendix F Voltage and resistance standards Load lines ].059 and measurements 1025 Appendix G Bandwidth-narrowing techniques 1026 Ransistor saturation 1062 Appendix H The problem of signal-to-noise LC Butterworth filters 1064 ratio Signal averaging and multichannel Appendix )( averaging 1026 Electronics magazines and journals Making a signal periodic Lock-in detection 1031 Appendix J Pulse-height analysis 1034 IC prefixes Time-to-amplitude converters Appendix K 1035 Data sheets 1072 Spectrum analysis 2N NPN transistor 1073 and Fourier LF JFET transforms 1035 operational amplifier Spectrum analyzers 1035 LM317 3-terminal adjustable Off-line spectrum analysis 1038 regulator 1086 Self-explanatory circuits 1038 Bibliography Circuit ideas 1038 Index 1101

Introductory Electronics for Scientists and Engineers

Introductory Electronics for Scientists and Engineers Second Edition ROBERT E. SIMPSON University of New Hampshire Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Boston London Sydney Toronto Contents Preface xiü 1 Direct Current