PRINCIPLES OF RADAR. By Members of the Staff of the Radar School Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Third Edition by J.
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1 PRINCIPLES OF RADAR By Members of the Staff of the Radar School Massachusetts Institute of Technology Third Edition by J. Francis Reintjes ASSISTANT PBOFESSOR OF COMMUNICATIONS MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Godfrey T. Coate FORMERLY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY A publication of the Technology Press Massachusetts Institute of Technology McGRAW-HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY LTD NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO
2 FOREWORD PREFACE v vii CHAPTER I. Pulsed Radar 1 1. Radar Determination of Range 2 2. Radar Direction Indication 7 3. Data Presentation Discernment of Signals and Noise Radar Range Equation Limitations of Radar Radar Frequencies Types of Radar Equipment Block Diagram of a Radar Set 46 CHAPTER II. Timing Circuits 54 A. CLIPPING CIRCUITS Clipping with Diodes Clipping with Amplifiers Clipping with Cathode Followers 61 B. R-C CIRCUITS Transients in R-C Circuits Saw-tooth Generator Decoupling Filters and Bias Circuits R-C Peaker Sloping Wavefront Applied to Peaker R-C Coupling Circuit Signal Bias and Clampers Effect of Grid Return Step Generator Free-running Plate-coupled Multivibrator Driven Plate-coupled Multivibrator Cathode-coupled Multivibrator Phantastron Delay Circuit Tube and Wiring Capacitances 110 C R-L-C CIRCUITS H4 18. Transients in Parallel R-L-C Circuits Ringing Circuit 120 ix
3 X 20. Pulse Transformers Blocking Oscillator Traveling Waves on Artificial Transmission Lines Switching Operations in Transmission-line Circuits Reflections at Line Terminals Applications of Artificial Transmission Lines 150 CHAPTER III. Modulators 153 A. PULSE FORMATION BY NETWORKS AND SWITCHES Charging an Open-end Line Pulse Formation by Discharge of an Open-end Line Pulse Formation by a Shorted-end Line Pulse-forming Networks Characteristics of Loads for Pulse-forming Networks Switching Devices for Discharging Pulse-forming Networks 166 B. LINE-PULSING MODULATORS Charging Methods Rotary-spark-gap Modulator Modulator with Saturable-core Inductor and Inductive-impulse Charging 183 C. DRIVER-POWER-AMPLIFIER MODULATORS #-C-coupled Power Amplifier Transformer-coupled Power Amplifier Bootstrap Drive Line-controlled Blocking-oscillator Driver Delay-line-controlled Driver Driver Using Shorted-end Line Blocking-oscillator Modulator 214 CHAPTER IV. Indicators 215 A. CATHODE-RAY TUBES Electrostatic Cathode-ray Tubes Magnetic Cathode-ray Tubes Designations and Ratings of Cathode-ray Tubes Data Presentation by Means of Cathode-ray Tubes 225 B. SWEEP-VOLTAGE CIRCUITS Basic Type A Indicator Methods of Improving the Linearity of Sweep Voltages Phase-inverter Circuits Delayed Sweeps and Expanded Sweeps Indicators Used with Antenna Switching Type J Presentation 242
4 7± 11. Ringing Circuit for Type J Presentation Crystal-controlled Oscillator for Type J Presentation 248 C. SWEEP-CURRENT CIRCUITS Basic Magnetic-deflection Indicator Current-Voltage Relations for Deflection Coil Grid Voltage for Deflection-coil Driver Tube R-C Trapezoidal-voltage Generator Rectangular Grid-voltage Pulse for Driver Tube Feedback-amplifier Sweep Circuit Azimuth Sweep Circuit for Type B Presentation Rotating-coil Plan-position Indicator Methods of Positioning the Sweep Trace Fixed-coil Plan-position Indicator 271 CHAPTER V. Synchros and Servomechanisms 277 A. SYNCHROS * Construction and Connection of Synchro Motors and Generators Operation of Generator Electrical Zero Operation of Motor Torque-Angle Curve Oscillation Dampers Synchro Control Transformer Differential Synchro Designations of Synchros Synchro Capacitors The Electrical-zero Autotransformer Geared Synchro Systems Applications of Synchros 300 B. SERVOMECHANISMS Components of Servo Systems Servo Using Ward-Leonard Control System Direct-current Servo Motor Phase-sensitive Rectifiers Amplidyne Servomechanism Two-phase Induction Motor Servomechanisms Using Two-phase Induction Motor Transient Oscillations in Servomechanisms Sustained Oscillations in Servomechanisms Antihunt Devices Applications of Servomechanisms 336 CHAPTER VI. Receivers 338 A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Block Diagram Sine-wave Analysis 341
5 xii 3. Sine-wave Components of Video Pulses Sine-wave Components of Carrier-frequency Pulses Sine-wave Response of R-C Circuits Sine-wave Response of Parallel R-L-C Circuit Reproduction of Video Pulses Reproduction of Carrier-frequency Pulses Linear Equivalent Circuits for Tubes Grid Loading Caused by Cathode-lead Inductance Transit-time Grid Loading Silicon Crystals Characteristics of Noise Noise in Linear Passive Circuits Antenna Noise Vacuum-tube and Crystal Noise Noise Figure Receiver Frequencies and Bandwidths 396 B. COMPONENT CIRCUITS Typical Video Amplifier Video-pulse Amplification Compensated Video Amplifiers Single-tuned Intermediate-frequency Amplifier Double-tuned Coupling Circuits Stagger-tuned Amplifier Intermediate-frequency Input Stages Diode Detectors Triode and Pentode Detectors Crystal Mixers Vacuum-tube Mixers Automatic-frequency-control Circuits Anti-interference Circuits and Signal Discernibility 461 CHAPTER VII. Radio-frequency Transmission Lines Types of Transmission Lines Traveling Waves Lines Terminated in a Short Circuit Lines Terminated in an Open Circuit and in a Reactance Lines Terminated in a Resistance Lines Terminated in a Complex Impedance Graphical Determination of Reflection Coefficient Input Impedance of Transmission Lines Transmission-line Charts Input Admittance Transient and Steady-state Operation of Transmission Lines Power and Power Capacity 510
6 xm 13. Losses and Attenuation Impedance of Lines Having Small Losses Impedance-changing Devices Transmission-line Capacitance Transmission-line Inductance Transmission-line Resistance Characteristic Resistance, Propagation Speed, and Attenuation ^ 541 CHAPTER VIII. Waveguides 1. Applications and Advantages of Waveguides Basic Electromagnetic-wave Concepts The Parallel-strip Transmission Line Types of Electromagnetic Waves Normal Reflection of Plane Transverse Waves Oblique Reflection of Plane Transverse Waves Field Patterns Obtained by Oblique Reflection The TE 1,0 Wave in a Rectangular Waveguide Phase Velocity and Group Velocity Power and Attenuation Higher Order Wave Types in Rectangular Waveguides Rectangular-waveguide Dimensions Waveguide Fields for Frequencies below Cutoff Waveguide Impedances Impedance-changing Devices Circular Waveguides 608 CHAPTER IX. Resonant Lines and Cavities 1. Resonant Modes of Networks The Quality Factor Q Transmission-line Resonators Rectangular-waveguide Resonators Cavity Resonators Impedance of One-entry Resonators Coupling to One-entry Resonant Networks Equivalent Circuits for Transmission-line Resonators Coupling to Transmission-line Resonators Transmission Lines Terminated by Resonators Two-entry Resonators Coupling Devices for High-frequency Resonators Parallel Connections at High Frequency Coupling Loops Wavemeters Coupling Probes
7 XIV 17. Waveguide-to-coaxial-line Junctions Aperture Coupling 689 CHAPTER X. High-frequency Triode Oscillators Ultrahigh-frequency Triodes Sustained Oscillations Ultra-audion Oscillators Plate-return Oscillators Multitube Oscillators Analysis of Grid-return Circuits Grid-return Oscillators Loading of Oscillators Output Circuits for Uhf Oscillators Effects of Load on Frequency of Oscillation Grid-leak Bias in Oscillators Pulsed Oscillators 740 CHAPTER XI. Klystrons and Magnetrons 745 A. KLYSTRONS Two-resonator Klystron Reflex Klystrons Characteristics of Reflex Klystrons Electronic Tuning, Hysteresis, and Load Effects 760 B. MAGNETRONS Magnetron Construction and Type Numbers Magnetron Resonators Electron Motion in Magnetrons Magnetron Characteristics Performance Charts Rieke Diagrams Operation and Care of Magnetrons 803 CHAPTER XII. Radio-frequency Transmitting and Receiving Systems Radio-frequency-system Components Choke Joints Rotary Joints Waveguide Bends, Corners, and Twists T Junctions Hybrid Junctions Directional Couplers Attenuators Balanced-to-unbalanced Transformers Adjustment of Impedance Levels Tubes for T-R Devices 857
8 XV 12. Ultrahigh-frequency T-R Systems Transmit-Receive Devices for Coaxial-line Microwave Systems Transmit-Receive Devices for Waveguide Systems Input Circuits for Ultrahigh-frequency Receivers Single-ended Crystal Mixers Balanced Crystal Mixers Test Equipment 886 CHAPTER XIII. Antennas The Half-wave Antenna Input Impedances of Center-fed Antennas of Arbitrary Length Radiation Fields of a Half-wave Antenna Analysis of Radiation Fields of a Half-wave Antenna Patterns of a Half-wave Antenna; Pattern Interpretation Radiation Pattern of an Array of Half-wave Antennas Fed in Phase Radiation Pattern of an Array of Half-wave Antennas Fed out of Phase Examples of the Use of Factors in Obtaining Antenna Patterns Elimination of Back Radiation from Broadside Arrays Approximate Method of Determining the Beam Angle of a Broadside Array Antenna Connections for Broadside Arrays Parasitic Antennas Antennas with Parabolic Reflectors Feeds for Parabolic Antennas The Cosecant-squared Antenna 957 CHAPTER XIV. Propagation Components of Radiation Reflection from a Perfectly Conducting Plane Reflection Coefficients Effect of Earth Reflections on Range Divergence Standard Atmospheric Refraction Vertical-coverage Diagrams Nonstandard Refraction Atmospheric Reflections Character of Radar Echoes
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