Contents. 1. Essential Electronics 1. Preface Acknowledgements

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1 Contents Preface Acknowledgements ix xi 1. Essential Electronics 1 1.1: Current 2 1.2: Voltage 5 1.3: Power 6 1.4: Signals and Averages : Mean Average : Rectified Average : RMS Average 8 1.5: Complex Numbers : Complex Arithmetic : Phasors : Fourier's Theorem : Resistance and Ohm's Law : Resistance in Series and Parallel : Capacitance : Capacitive Reactance : Capacitors in Series and Parallel : Inductance : Inductive Reactance : Inductors in Series and Parallel : Impedance : Kirchoff's Voltage Law : Kirchoff's Current Law : Sources : Voltage and Current Sources : Dependent Sources : Thévenin's Theorem : Norton's Theorem : Potential Dividers : Current Dividers : The Principle of Superposition : Linear Circuit Analysis : Resonance : Filters : Bode Plots : Phase Delay : Step Response : Negative Feedback : The Universal Feedback Equation 54 i

2 1.24.2: Virtual Earth : General Properties of Negative Feedback : Stability Practical Components : Resistors : Resistance : Tolerance : Power Rating : Voltage Rating : Excess Noise : Temperature Coefficient : Parasitics : Metal Film : Metal Oxide : Carbon Film : Carbon Composition : Wirewound : Fusible / Flameproof Resistors : Potentiometers : Capacitors : Capacitance : Tolerance : Voltage Rating : Leakage : ESR : Loss Tangent / Dissipation Factor : Ripple Current : Dielectric Absorption : Parasitics : Air : Silvered Mica : Ceramic : Plastic / Film : Aluminium Electrolytic : Tantalum : Inductors : Distortion : Parasitics : Ferrite Beads : Power Transformers : VA (Power) Rating : Regulation : Phasing 91 ii

3 2.5: Small-Signal Transformers : Turns and Impedance Ratios : Source and Load Impedances : Parasitics : Distortion : Valves : The Anode : The Grids : The Cathode : The Heater : Electrostatic Shields : The Getter : The Mica Spacers : Variable-Mu / Remote Cut-off Valves : Valve Ratings : Anode Voltage Rating : Anode Dissipation Rating : Heater Voltage and Current Rating : Heater-Cathode Voltage Rating : Heater-Cathode Resistance Rating : Grid Voltage Ratings : Grid Dissipation Ratings : Grid Current : Grid-Leak Resistance Rating Fundamentals of Amplification : Basic Theory of Valves : Valve Diodes : Triodes : The Valve Constants : Anode Resistance, r a : Amplification Factor, µ : Transconductance, g m : Amplification : The Load Line : Biasing : The Cathode Load Line : Resistor Ratings : The Safe Operating Area : Distortion and the Transfer Function : Harmonic Distortion : Intermodulation Distortion : Clipping and Headroom : The Effect of Load on Distortion : The Golden Ratio 137 iii

4 iv 3.6.2: The AC Load Line : The Cathode Bypass Capacitor : Equivalent Circuits : Gain Equations : Impedance Matching and Bridging : Output Impedance : Input Impedance and the Miller Effect : Oscillation and Stoppers : Slew Rate and Reactive Loads : Power Supply Rejection Ratio, PSRR : Coupling : Blocking Distortion : Minimising Blocking Distortion : DC Coupling : Grid-Cathode Arc Protection : Level Shifting The Small-Signal Pentode : The Screen Grid : Secondary Emission : The Suppressor Grid : The Effect of Screen Voltage : The Effect of Screen Current : The Anode/Screen Current Ratio : Deriving Grid Curves for any Screen Voltage : Basic Design Equations : The Effect of Screen and Cathode Bypassing : A Traditional Pentode Gain Stage : The Effect of Cathode Degeneration : The Effect of Screen Degeneration : The Effect of Load on Distortion : Designing a Pentode Stage the Easy Way : Pentodes Connected as Triodes : Low-Capacitance Mode Noise, Hum and Microphony : Noise : Johnson or Thermal Noise : Shot Noise : Flicker or Excess Noise : Adding Noise Sources : Equivalent Input Noise : Noise Bandwidth : Noise Spectral Density : Noise Weighting 197

5 5.2: Noise in Resistors : Noise in Triodes : EIN Spectral Density : Total EIN : Noise in Pentodes : Noise in Bipolar Transistors : Noise in Field Effect Transistors : Noise in Diodes : Noise Calculations : Triode Gain Stage : Parallel Valves : Principles of Low-Noise Design : Hum : Electric Fields : Magnetic Fields : Transformers and Hum : Electric Shielding : Magnetic Shielding : Lead Dress : Microphony Advancements in Amplification : Current-Source Loading : Triode Current Source : Simple BJT Current Source : Cascode BJT Current Source : FET Current Sources : Valve Distortion Measurements : ECC81 / 12AT : ECC82 / 12AU : ECC83 / 12AX : ECC84 / 6CW : ECC88 / 6DJ : 6Ж52Π / 6J52P : 6SN7GT : Summary : Diode Biasing The Cathode Follower : Design Equations : Gain : Input Impedance : Output Impedance : PSRR 253 v

6 7.2: Noise : Oscillation and Stoppers : Anode Characteristics : Using the New Anode Characteristics : Cathode Bias : Fixed Bias : DC Coupling : Distortion Cancellation : The Bootstrapped Pair : The Constant-Current-Draw Amplifier : Transistor Followers : Active Loading : Output Voltage Limiting : Compound Cathode Followers : Feed-forward Noise Cancellation : The White Cathode Follower : A Transformerless Headphone Driver Compound Amplifiers : Totem-Pole Gain Stages : The Half-µ Stage : The SRPP : The µ-follower : The Cascode : The Cathode-Coupled Amplifier Controls : Source Selection : Volume Control : Potentiometers : Stepped Attenuators : Relay Attenuators : Balance Control : Tone Controls : Passive James/Baxandall Tone Controls : Passive Tilt Control : Active James/Baxandall Tone Controls : Active Tilt Control The Phono Stage : RIAA Equalisation : The IEC Amendment : The Neumann Fallacy 337 vi

7 10.2: Phono Stage Design : Active Equalisation : RIAA Accuracy : Realising Passive Equalisation : An Inverse RIAA Filter : The Input Stage : Moving-Magnet Pickup Cartridges : Valve Choice : Moving-Coil Pickup Cartridges : Moving-Coil Input Transformers : Active Moving-Coil Head Amplifiers : A Moving-Magnet Phono Design Example : The Input Stage : Fleshing-Out The Design : The Second Stage : The Output Stage : The Power Supply : Measured Performance Power Supplies : Essentials of Rectification : Average DC Output Voltage : Ripple Voltage and Reservoir Capacitance : Ripple Current : Power Factor and VA Rating : Diode Ratings : Switching Noise and Fast Rectifiers : Voltage Multipliers : Valve Rectifiers : Electrical Ratings : Voltage Drop : Heater Supply : Hot Switching and Inrush Current : Choke-Input Rectifiers : Design Calculations : Power Supply Refinements : Inrush Current Limiting : Fuses : Switches and Switching : Transient Suppression : EMI Filtering : Bleeder Resistor : Smoothing, Bypassing and Decoupling : Smoothing : Bypassing 394 vii

8 viii : Decoupling : LC Versus RC Filters : The Gyrator or Simulated Inductor : The Capacitor Multiplier : Voltage Regulation : Linear Regulator ICs : Adjustable Regulators : Low-Dropout Regulators : Switching Regulators : High-Voltage Regulators : Heatsinking : Heater Supplies : Rectifier-Induced Hum : Electrical Heater Balancing : Heater Elevation : Common-Mode Noise : DC Heater Supplies : Accommodating Different Heaters : Back-to-Back Transformers : Reducing Primary Voltage : Transformerless Supplies : External Power Supplies 423

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