VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED oscillators (VCOs) are essential

Transcription

1 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 40, NO. 4, APRIL A 1.8-GHz LC VCO With 1.3-GHz Tuning Range and Digital Amplitude Calibration Axel D. Berny, Student Member, IEEE, Ali M. Niknejad, Member, IEEE, and Robert G. Meyer, Fellow, IEEE Abstract A 1.8-GHz LC VCO designed in a m CMOS process achieves a very wide tuning range of 73% and measured phase noise of dbc/hz at a 600-kHz offset from a 1.8-GHz carrier while drawing 3.2 ma from a 1.5-V supply. The impacts of wideband operation on start-up constraints and phase noise are discussed. Tuning range is analyzed in terms of fundamental dimensionless design parameters yielding useful design equations. An amplitude calibration technique is used to stabilize performance across the wide band of operation. This amplitude control scheme not only consumes negligible power and area without degrading the phase noise, but also proves to be instrumental in sustaining the VCO performance in the upper end of the frequency range. Index Terms Amplitude calibration, band-switching, VCO, phase noise, RF CMOS, tuning range, wideband VCO. I. INTRODUCTION VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED oscillators (VCOs) are essential building blocks of modern communication systems. The VCO performance in terms of phase noise and tuning range determines basic performance characteristics of a transceiver. The current trend toward multiband multistandard transceivers and broadband systems has generated interest in VCOs that simultaneously achieve very wide tuning range and low phase noise performance [1] [9]. Whereas relaxation oscillators easily achieve very wide tuning range (i.e., 100% or more), their poor phase noise performance disqualifies them in many of today s wireless and wireline applications. Because LC VCOs have been successfully used in narrowband wireless transceivers, there is a growing interest in extending their tuning range. Recently, several wideband CMOS LC VCOs have been demonstrated using a variety of techniques [1] [4]. The high intrinsic of inversion- or accumulation-type MOS varactors supports a very wide tuning range and their is sufficiently high that good phase noise performance can be maintained [3]. However in practice, the overall phase noise performance is also highly dependent on the tuning sensitivity of the VCO, since noise from preceding stages of the frequency synthesizer is inevitably injected into the VCO control input. Hence, aside from achieving a high tuning range, practical wideband VCO solutions must also control the tuning sensitivity. Furthermore since the tank amplitude Manuscript received September 3, 2004; revised December 1, This work was supported by the U.S. Army Research Office under Grant DAAD The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA USA ( axelb@eecs.berkeley.edu). Digital Object Identifier /JSSC of most LC VCOs to first order changes with the square of frequency, practical implementations must provide some way to stabilize this parameter. Conventional amplitude control schemes use continuous feedback methods and have been successfully demonstrated [9] [11]. Their crucial and effective role in stabilizing the oscillation amplitude comes at the cost of added complexity and a noise penalty due to the presence of additional noise contributors that feed back to the oscillator [9] [11]. Section II discusses basic aspects of wideband LC VCO design, drawing attention to the frequency dependence of well-known parameters. In Section III, tuning range is analyzed, yielding equations that quantify design tradeoffs between tuning range and the overall tank quality factor. Section IV covers circuit design details of the VCO core. Section V presents experimental results, which demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed solution. II. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR WIDEBAND LC VCOS A. Fundamental Start-Up Constraint The equivalent parallel tank impedance at resonance is a strong function of the oscillation frequency and inductance, and is given by where the overall tank quality factor is assumed to be dominated by inductor losses characterized here by the physical series resistance of the coil, which eventually becomes a function of frequency due to skin/proximity effects and substrate eddy current induced losses. The above equation is valid as long as the capacitive elements of the tank have a significantly higher than the inductor, which may not hold true at very high frequencies. In the work presented, (1) is valid in its simplest form over the targeted range of operation. In any oscillator, the most fundamental design criterion consists of satisfying start-up conditions. In tunable LC oscillators, these conditions are themselves a function of frequency [5]. For the generic LC oscillator shown in Fig. 1, such conditions are satisfied if the pair of complex conjugate poles of the small-signal (initial) loop-gain transfer function lie in the RHP, which occurs when the magnitude of the loop-gain is greater than unity (1) (2) /$ IEEE

2 910 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 40, NO. 4, APRIL 2005 Fig. 1. Generic LC oscillator. Fig. 2. Differential cross-coupled LC oscillator. Equation (2) indicates a fundamental lower limit on the current consumption for a given transconductor and LC tank configuration. Moreover, the pronounced frequency dependence in (2) indicates that the worst-case scenario occurs at the low-end of the desired frequency range. In practice, the small-signal transconductance is set to a value that guarantees startup with a reasonable safety margin under worst-case conditions. Increasing beyond this chosen value generally contributes more noise and is thus undesirable. As frequency increases, the corresponding increase in lessens the required. Thus, wideband VCOs using transconductors fixed at a predetermined critical value feature significant excess of in the upper portion of their frequency range. B. Impact of Oscillation Amplitude Variations The steady-state oscillation amplitude is an important design characteristic of oscillators, and can also have a significant impact on neighboring system blocks. The amplitude of any oscillator is determined by some nonlinear limiting mechanism forcing the steady-state loop gain to unity. For the widely used differential cross-coupled LC oscillator shown in Fig. 2, two such regimes can be discerned [2], [12]. In the current-limited regime, the current from the tail current source is periodically commutated between the left and right sides of the tank. Thus, the resulting fundamental amplitude is directly proportional to and, whereas higher harmonics of the commutated current are attenuated by the bandpass profile of the LC tank. As is increased from its minimum value satisfying start-up conditions, the tank amplitude increases linearly. Eventually, the amplitude saturates to a plateau dictated by the available headroom from the supply voltage. These two regimes are illustrated in Fig. 3(a). Operating an oscillator in the voltagelimited regime is generally undesirable because the added power consumption no longer increases the amplitude and is thus recognized as a waste of power [2]. In wideband VCOs, large changes in with frequency [see (1)] can also cause a transition from the current-limited to the voltage-limited regime as frequency increases. Thus, should Fig. 3. (a) Steady-state oscillator amplitude versus I trend and (b) phase noise versus I trend, indicating current- and voltage-limited regimes. be reduced as frequency increases in order to prevent such a transition from occurring, otherwise power is wasted. To gain insight into the impact of oscillation amplitude variations on phase noise, we consider the simplified case of a generic linear time-invariant LC oscillator with an equivalent noise generator across its tank, as shown in Fig. 1. Applying Kirchoff s equations and solving for the noise to signal power ratio reduces to (3). More rigorous treatments of phase noise can be found in [13] [17]. Despite its simplicity, (3) highlights some of the most important dependencies where has been substituted, implying that noise generators from the energy-restoring transconductor and from the tank loss dominate, as is often the case. is the tank amplitude and is the frequency offset from the carrier. is an excess noise factor ( for long-channel devices). Further insight is gained by considering (3) across the two different regimes of operation described earlier. In the currentlimited regime, (3) can be rewritten as follows: For narrowband designs, does not vary appreciably over the tuning range and thus where is a chosen start-up safety margin. Under these conditions, the phase noise shows a dependence. While this highlights the importance of, a careful optimization should consider as a function of for the chosen technology and area constraints, as discussed in [2]. Also apparent in (4) is the direct relationship between bias current and phase noise, which provides the designer with a convenient way to trade power for noise performance. (3) (4)

3 BERNY et al.: A 1.8-GHz LC VCO WITH 1.3-GHz TUNING RANGE AND DIGITAL AMPLITUDE CALIBRATION 911 In the voltage-limited regime, (3) can be rewritten as follows: (5) where due to the excessive signal amplitude bringing the transconductor into its resistive region, which degrades the overall tank quality factor. In a narrowband design where the voltage-limited regime is reached by increasing, (5) indicates that the phase noise must degrade since the amplitude saturates to while the transconductor noise keeps rising. The fact that decreases as well typically exacerbates this phase noise degradation. Fig. 3(b) shows a typical scenario of PN versus. The boundary between the two regimes of operation represents the optimum point for achieving lowest phase noise. Increasing beyond this point not only wastes power, but also degrades the phase noise. While the above observations yield important insights for narrowband designs, frequency dependences must be taken into account in order to assess similar characteristics for wideband VCOs. Here, we restrict the analysis to the current-limited regime since it is the preferred region of operation, as discussed above. Again starting from (3), a phase noise expression highlighting its frequency dependence is derived assuming a fixed current and Equation (6) reveals a somewhat counter-intuitive result: phase noise tends to improve as frequency increases. Even in cases where grows linearly with frequency (equivalent to a flattening of with frequency), (6) shows that phase noise is relatively constant with frequency. The reason why phase noise does not degrade with its classical dependence is that the tank amplitude in this particular topology basically grows with. However, (6) only applies in the current-limited regime. Wideband designs operated with fixed experience significant amplitude growth as frequency increases, which eventually brings the VCO into the voltage-limited regime where phase noise is known to degrade. Furthermore, the optimal point for lowest phase noise indicated in Fig. 3(b) cannot be held across frequency. Amplitude variations in wideband VCOs cause several additional second order effects which may be of concern, depending on the application. One such effect is the effective reduction of the varactor s capacitive range and the associated reduction in the overall tuning sensitivity. Fig. 4 shows a periodic-steady-state (PSS) SpectreRF simulation of a typical MOS varactor - curve for different values of oscillation amplitude. Although the corresponding reduction of the tuning range is easy to account for and compensate, amplitude-dependent variations of the tuning sensitivity need to be addressed in the design of the frequency synthesizer. Other effects generally consist of how amplitude variations affect neighboring blocks in the system. One such example would be a mixer, where the conversion gain would vary if the VCO amplitude changes widely. Another example would be a prescaler (or divider) that interfaces to the VCO. (6) Fig. 4. Periodic-steady state simulation of varactor capacitance versus V for two different tank amplitudes. Overall, amplitude variations in wideband VCOs not only cause detrimental variations in the phase noise performance over frequency, but also impact the functionality of neighboring blocks. Thus, it can be concluded that providing a way to control the oscillation amplitude dependence on frequency is highly desirable. C. Amplitude Control Scheme As discussed in the previous sections, the tank impedance variations present in truly wideband designs significantly affect the VCO operation and can no longer be ignored. Methods to address this issue typically consist of some form of amplitude control. A conventional method of controlling the amplitude of a VCO is by means of an automatic amplitude control (AAC) loop [10], [11], where a continuous-time feedback loop provides very accurate control of the oscillation amplitude and at the same time ensures startup conditions are met. As in all feedback systems, great care must be taken to ensure that the loop remains stable under all operating conditions. Furthermore, the presence of additional noise generators in the loop can significantly degrade the phase noise performance. In this work, we propose an alternative amplitude control scheme to alleviate the deficiencies inherent in the conventional approach. Instead of a continuous feedback loop, a calibration approach is used as shown in Fig. 5. The VCO amplitude is first peak detected and compared to a programmable reference voltage setting the desired amplitude. The output of the comparator is analyzed by a simple digital state machine that decides whether to update the programmable bias current of the VCO or to end calibration. This method has the advantage of being active only during calibration. Thus, the steady-state phase noise performance of the VCO is not affected. Furthermore, the openloop nature of this calibration method eliminates any concerns of instability. In addition, the power consumed by calibration circuits is negligible since they are powered off as soon as calibration ends. While a constant-amplitude versus frequency calibration is most obvious, the fully programmable nature of this method can be exploited to implement more intricate application-specific calibration scenarios.

4 912 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 40, NO. 4, APRIL 2005 Fig. 6. Generic binary-weighted band-switching LC tank configuration. Fig. 5. Proposed calibration-based amplitude control scheme. For a given set of specifications, the tuning range extremities are defined as follows: (9a) For a constant-amplitude scenario where is scaled with frequency, (3) can be rewritten to show the resulting phase noise versus frequency trend where has been substituted for and approximated as.if is approximately constant over the frequency range and transconductor noise dominates, (7) indicates a 9-dB/octave trend. III. TUNING RANGE: ANALYSIS AND CONSIDERATIONS One of the main challenges of wideband low-phase-noise LC VCO design consists of expanding an intrinsically narrow tuning range without significantly degrading noise performance or incurring excessive tuning sensitivity. In recent years, band-switching techniques have been used extensively. Inherently well adapted to the scaling of MOS technology, these techniques have proved to be successful ways to increase tuning range and/or decrease tuning sensitivity [3], [5], [18]. The following analysis is based on a generic binary-weighted band-switching LC tank configuration of size, as shown in Fig. 6. The following definitions are used in subsequent derivations: (7) (9b) To guarantee that any two adjacent sub-bands overlap, the following condition must be satisfied: (10) where and. Using (8a) and (8b), (10) can be rewritten as (11) where is a chosen overlap safety margin factor and is greater than unity. Equation (11) can be substituted in (9a) to solve for independently of, giving (12) Thus, having chosen parameters, and, and given design constants, and, one can solve for and [using (11)]. Considerations in choosing these parameters are discussed in subsequent paragraphs. Taking the ratio of (9b) and (9a) yields the tuning range TR as a function of only s,, and (8a) (8b) (8c) is the minimum varactor capacitance for the available tuning voltage range and is reached as the device enters its depletion mode. represents the effective capacitance of a unit branch of the array in the off state. The MOS switch in a unit branch of the array contributes a parasitic capacitance that is mainly composed of its drain-to-bulk junction and drain-to-gate overlap capacitors, giving. Note that if coarse-tuned varactors are used instead of switched capacitors (see [3]), retains the same meaning. is the total lumped parasitic capacitance and equals the total tank capacitance. Hence, (8c) may be equivalently expressed as. Furthermore, note that according to equations (8a c), increasing any one of the defined terms increases the achievable tuning range. (13) To be able to quantify the impact of lossy switches, we note that the quality factor of the capacitor array is well approximated as, where is the resistance of the unit MOS switch. Given that, the resulting quality factor of the capacitor array is given by (14) Note that since the MOS switch would generally use the minimum available gate length and, the product is approximately constant for a given technology. Fig. 7(a) shows values of TR and from (13) and (14) plotted versus for a typical scenario, and clearly illustrates the direct tradeoff between tuning range and. As the MOS switches are made

5 BERNY et al.: A 1.8-GHz LC VCO WITH 1.3-GHz TUNING RANGE AND DIGITAL AMPLITUDE CALIBRATION 913 Fig. 7. (a) Tuning range and capacitor array quality factor versus. (b) Tuning range versus Q. larger to decrease their resistance, their off-state parasitic capacitance grows proportionally thus reducing the tuning range. Furthermore, (14) is substituted into (13), and the resulting expression is plotted in Fig. 7(b). Hence, Fig. 7(b) gives the tuning range TR as a function of, for given technology constants ( and ), chosen safety factor, and design parameters, and. The practical significance of Fig. 7(b) lies in its ability to quantify the fundamental tradeoff between phase noise and tuning range. For instance, a design aiming to achieve a 2:1 tuning range while using an inductor with, would reduce the overall by about 20% (i.e., ) and thus increase the phase noise by approximately 2 db (all evaluated at 2.4 GHz). Another important design parameter of the band-switching configuration is the array size (i.e., the number of bits controlling the binary-weighted array). As one would suspect, adding more bits to the array is beneficial to the tuning range but only to a certain degree. Beyond a certain point, the minimum fixed capacitance in the design prevents any further improvement. To gain better insight for this trend, (13) is plotted for different values of and shown in Fig. 8(a). From Fig. 8(a), it is clear that the improvement in TR from increasing quickly saturates, especially in the useful range of (i.e., low values of corresponding to high values of ). Nevertheless, increasing still yields a proportional decrease in the tuning sensitivity. In practice, this benefit needs to be weighed against the time needed to calibrate the additional bits. Finally, the inductance also plays a critical role for the achievable tuning range. Although this dependence may not be clear from (13), recall that a typical plot of (13) as a function of. Fig. 8(b) shows. However, a strategy Fig. 8. (a) Tuning range versus for different number of bits in the capacitor array. (b) Tuning range versus. for choosing the optimal inductance is difficult to generalize, as several conflicting performance tradeoffs are involved. In particular, the start-up constraint described by (2) gives, which indicates that a large inductance is preferred in terms of power consumption. Note that although this is usually true, it may not be the case in situations where the inductor quality factor varies significantly over the considered range of inductance. Furthermore, recall that phase noise shows a in the current limited regime. While this may seem to favor larger as well, the dependence between the inductor s quality factor and its inductance must now be taken into account. Even if this dependence is relatively weak in many cases, the cubic term can quickly make a significant difference on phase noise. In summary, finding the optimal inductance for a given design ultimately depends on which constraints are most important to the intended application. IV. CIRCUIT DESIGN The VCO core is based on a standard LC-tuned cross-coupled NMOS topology, chosen primarily for its ability to achieve low phase noise and for its higher headroom and lower parasitics compared to a tail-biased complementary cross-coupled configuration. The LC tank consists of a single integrated differential spiral inductor, accumulation-mode MOS varactors allowing continuous frequency tuning, and a switched capacitor array providing coarse tuning steps. This design is implemented in a m bulk CMOS technology. Fig. 9 shows a simplified schematic of the VCO core. The W/L of the cross-coupled NMOS devices is chosen based on oscillation startup requirements at the low-end (worst-case)

6 914 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 40, NO. 4, APRIL 2005 Fig. 10. Phase noise at 1.2, 1.8, and 2.4 GHz for a core power consumption of 10, 4.8, and 2.6 mw, respectively. Fig. 9. Simplified VCO core schematic. V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS This VCO was fabricated in a commercially available m CMOS process. The tank inductor was realized as a 5.6-nH differential spiral on a 2- m-thick top metal layer achieving a measured (single-ended) ranging from about 7.5 to 9 over the VCO frequency range. The VCO was measured on a test board built on standard FR4 material. The die was glued directly onto the PC board with conductive silver epoxy and wirebonds were used to connect all inputs and outputs. A Fig. 11. Measured frequency tuning range. of the tuning range. Since the drain noise current of the crosscoupled devices is the dominant noise contributor in this design, the lengths are made larger than minimum-size to limit shortchannel induced excess noise. This results in a device width of 32 m and length of 0.3 m. In order to achieve a large frequency range while keeping a relatively low tuning sensitivity, the LC tank combines a switched capacitor array with a small varactor. The targeted frequency range is split into 16 sub-bands by means of a 4-bit binary-weighted array of switched MIM capacitors. The capacitors are switched in and out of the tank by differential switches. Long thin NMOS transistors are added to provide a dc reference point to the source and drain of each switch (when on) without adding significant parasitics at those nodes. Each switch contributes additional loss to the tank due to its finite resistance,. Thus, minimum-length NMOS devices are utilized and made as wide as can be tolerated with regards to the resulting parasitic drain-to-bulk capacitance, which ultimately limits the achievable tuning range. Because the desired tuning range has been divided into several sections, a small accumulation-mode NMOS varactor is sufficient to cover each frequency sub-band. Each varactor is 115 m wide with a gate length of 0.92 m and has a maximum capacitance of 0.87 pf. It achieves an intrinsic smallsignal ratio of about 3.2. Because the middle of the varactor - characteristic occurs for a gate-bulk bias of about 0 V, each varactor is ac-coupled to the tank via a 5-pF series MIM capacitor and its gate is biased at, as shown in Fig. 9. buffer is included on-chip to facilitate driving a 50- environment. An on-chip balun converts the differential buffer output into a single-ended signal compatible with the measurement apparatus. Biased with 8.5 ma, the buffer delivers a nominal output power of about 12 dbm at 1.8 GHz. Phase noise measurements were performed on a HP8563E spectrum analyzer running the phase noise measurement option. Fig. 10 shows the measured and simulated phase noise at the lower, middle, and upper ends of the tuning range running at a core power consumption of 10, 4.8, and 2.6 mw, respectively. Measurements show good agreement with simulations. Beyond offset frequencies of about 1 MHz, the measurement is limited by the noise floor of the spectrum analyzer. A very wide tuning range of 73% is achieved with a control voltage tuned from 0 to 1.5 V. The VCO tuning range is illustrated in Fig. 11, showing all 16 overlapping frequency subbands. The measured frequency range is GHz with a maximum tuning sensitivity of 270 MHz/V. Fig. 12 shows the measured buffer output voltage waveform during amplitude calibration runs at 1.4, 1.8, and 2.2 GHz for a VCO differential tank amplitude programmed to 1.1 V. The calibration begins by setting the bias current to its maximum value. The current source control bits are decremented until the comparator toggles low, indicating that the VCO output is now lower than the programmed reference level. Fig. 12 also captures the transition from voltage-limited to current-limited regime at 1.8 and 2.2 GHz, where the voltage amplitude responds noticeably slower to the decreasing bias current during the first several calibration cycles. Faster and more elaborate calibration routines

7 BERNY et al.: A 1.8-GHz LC VCO WITH 1.3-GHz TUNING RANGE AND DIGITAL AMPLITUDE CALIBRATION 915 Fig. 12. Measured amplitude calibration runs at 1.4, 1.8, and 2.2 GHz. Fig. 14. FOM versus frequency for calibrated and uncalibrated cases. Fig. 13. Measured phase noise at 100-kHz offset and core power consumption versus frequency for calibrated and uncalibrated cases. can easily be implemented by modifying the digital state machine. The time required to run the calibration routine is at most, where is the number of current source control bits and is the time needed to complete a single calibration cycle, here dominated by the settling time of the peak detector ( 100 ns). Hence, a conservative of about 600 ns was used as a proof of concept and does not represent the actual minimum settling time needed for this implementation. This amplitude control scheme features a basic tradeoff between amplitude accuracy and speed. This implementation uses, providing amplitude control from to in increments of and a worst-case calibration run time of. 1 Alternatively, could be increased to improve accuracy at the expense of a longer calibration time. If is large, the errors introduced by the peak detector and comparator offset may be comparable to the quantization error and may need to be considered. In many applications, the calibration time can be tolerated and a calibration can be initiated every time the synthesizer is tuned to a new frequency, without adding significant overhead to the overall settling time. Alternatively, a full set of calibrations (for each frequency sub-band) can be run at power-on and the results stored as a look up table in memory. Fig. 13 shows the phase noise performance across the VCO frequency range for calibrated and uncalibrated scenarios. In the uncalibrated case, the bias current is set just high enough to satisfy start-up requirements at the low-end of the tuning range and 1 V and V are the minimum and maximum desired tank amplitude settings, respectively. Fig. 15. Die photograph. remains constant. At the upper-end of the tuning range, this results in a tank amplitude that is too large and considerably degrades phase noise, as discussed in Section II. In the calibrated case, the bias current is effectively scaled down with frequency to maintain the tank amplitude approximately constant, helping to sustain the phase noise performance over the upper-end of the tuning range. The 9-dB/octave trend predicted by (7) is consistent with the measurements. Fig. 14 casts the data provided in Fig. 13 as a power-frequency-tuning-normalized (PFTN) figure of merit (FOM), introduced in [2], for calibrated and uncalibrated scenarios. The combination of lower phase noise and lower power consumption for the calibrated scenario yield a significantly improved FOM in the upper half of the frequency range. A photograph of the VCO die is shown in Fig. 15. The total chip area including bondpads is 1.7 mm. Table I summarizes the VCO performance.

8 916 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 40, NO. 4, APRIL 2005 TABLE I VCO PERFORMANCE SUMMARY TABLE II VCO PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF RECENTLY PUBLISHED WIDEBAND VCOS VI. CONCLUSION We have described a 1.8-GHz LC VCO implemented in m bulk CMOS that simultaneously achieves low phase noise and a very wide tuning range exceeding 2:1 (73%). To provide robust operation and stabilize performance over the entire frequency range, the VCO amplitude is controlled using a digital amplitude calibration scheme that does not degrade phase noise and consumes negligible area and power. Typical measured phase noise is dbc/hz at 600-kHz offset from 1.8 GHz for a core power consumption of only 4.8 mw from a 1.5-V supply. As shown in Table II, the VCO achieves a PFTN phase noise FOM ranging from 5 to 8.5 db over the entire frequency range, which is one of the highest reported to date. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors thank IBM for IC fabrication, E. Shelton for his help with FPGA programming, and A. Bevilacqua for helpful discussions. REFERENCES [1] J. Kucera, Wideband BiCMOS VCO for GSM/UMTS direct conversion receivers, in IEEE ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers, 2001, pp [2] D. Ham and A. Hajimiri, Concepts and methods of optimization of integrated LC VCOs, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 36, no. 6, pp , Jun [3] N. H. W. Fong, J.-O. Plouchart, N. Zamdmer, D. Liu, L. Wagner, C. Plett, and N. G. Tarr, Design of wide-band CMOS VCO for multiband wireless LAN applications, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 38, no. 8, pp , Aug [4] B. De Muer, N. Itoh, M. Borremans, and M. Steyaert, A 1.8 GHz highly-tunable low-phase-noise CMOS VCO, in Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conf., 2000, pp [5] A. D. Berny, A. M. Niknejad, and R. G. Meyer, A wideband low-phasenoise CMOS VCO, in Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conf., 2003, pp [6] R. Aparicio and A. Hajimiri, A noise-shifting differential colpitts VCO, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 37, no. 12, pp , Dec [7] F. Svelto and R. Castello, A bond-wire inductor-mos varactor VCO tunable from 1.8 to 2.4 GHz, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 50, no. 1, pp , Jan [8] J.-K. Cho, H.-I. Lee, K.-S. Nah, and B.-H. Park, A 2-GHz wide band low phase noise voltage-controlled oscillator with on-chip LC tank, in Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conf., 2003, pp [9] J. W. M. Rogers, D. Rahn, and C. Plett, A study of digital and analog automatic-amplitude control circuitry for voltage-controlled oscillators, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 38, no. 2, pp , Feb [10] M. A. Margarit, J. L. Tham, R. G. Meyer, and M. J. Deen, A lownoise, low-power VCO with automatic amplitude control for wireless applications, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 34, no. 6, pp , Jun [11] A. Zanchi, C. Samori, S. Levantino, and A. Lacaita, A 2 V 2.5-GHz 104 dbc/hz at 100 khz fully-integrated VCO with wide-band low noise automatic amplitude control loop, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 36, no. 4, pp , Apr [12] A. Hajimiri and T. Lee, Design issues in CMOS differential LC oscillators, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 34, no. 5, pp , May [13] A. Hajimiri and T. H. Lee, A general theory of phase noise in electrical oscillators, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 33, no. 2, pp , Feb [14] C. Samori, A. L. Lacaita, E. Villa, and E. Zappa, Spectrum folding and phase noise in LC tuned oscillators, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II: Analog Digit. Signal Process., vol. 45, no. 7, pp , Jul [15] J. Craninckx and M. Steyaert, Low-noise voltage-controlled oscillators using enhanced LC-tanks, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II: Analog Digit. Signal Process., vol. 42, no. 12, pp , Dec [16] J. Rael and A. Abidi, Physical processes of phase noise in differential LC oscillators, in Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conf., 2000, pp [17] K. Kouznetsov and R. Meyer, Phase noise in LC oscillators, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 35, no. 8, pp , Aug [18] A. Kral, F. Behbahani, and A. Abidi, RF-CMOS oscillators with switched tuning, in Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conf., 1998, pp Axel D. Berny (S 97) was born in Liège, Belgium, in He received the B.S.E.E. degree from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 2000, and received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the University of California, Berkeley, in 2002, where he is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree. His research has focused on various aspects of RFIC design, and in particular on wideband low-noise frequency synthesizers. During the summers of , he worked as a Design Engineer in the wireless group at Maxim Integrated Products, Sunnyvale, CA, where he investigated low phase noise RF VCOs and designed various RF/analog calibration circuits for products.

9 BERNY et al.: A 1.8-GHz LC VCO WITH 1.3-GHz TUNING RANGE AND DIGITAL AMPLITUDE CALIBRATION 917 Ali M. Niknejad (S 92 M 00) received the B.S.E.E. degree from the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1994, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1997 and From 2000 to 2002, he worked at Silicon Laboratories, Austin, TX, where he was involved with the design and research of CMOS RF integrated circuits and devices for wireless communication applications. He is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Berkeley. His current research interests are in the area of analog integrated circuits and device modeling, particularly as applied to wireless and broadband communication circuits. Dr. Niknejad is an active member of the Berkeley Wireless Research Center (BWRC) and he is the co-director of the BSIM Research Group. He is currently serving as an Associate Editor of the IEEE JOURNAL OFSOLID-STATE CIRCUITS. Robert G. Meyer (S 64 M 68 SM 74 F 81) was born in Melbourne, Australia, in He received the B.E., M.Eng.Sci., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia, in 1963, 1965, and 1968, respectively. In 1968, he was an Assistant Lecturer in the Electrical Engineering Department, University of Melbourne. Since September 1968, he has been with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California at Berkeley, where he is currently a Professor. His current research interests are high-frequency analog integrated-circuit design and device fabrication. He has acted as a consultant on electronic circuit design for numerous companies in the electronics industry. He has co-authored Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuit (New York: Wiley, 1993), edited Integrated Circuit Operational Amplifiers (New York: IEEE Press, 1978), and co-edited Integrated Circuits for Wireless Communications (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 1999). Dr. Meyer is a past President of the Solid-State Circuits Council of the IEEE. In 1973, 1976, and 1987 he was a Guest Editor of the IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS and from 1976 to 1982 he was an Associate Editor of the JOURNAL. He is a former Associate Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS. He received the 2003 IEEE Leon K. Kirchmayer Graduate Teaching Award. In 1975 he was a Visiting Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department of the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, and in 1996 and 2003, he was a Visiting Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department of Columbia University, New York.