Copyright 2015 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.!
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1 Seminar 11! Commercial Space Flight! Telemetry, Communications, & Tracking! Robert Stengel! FRS 112, From the Earth to the Moon! Princeton University, 2015! " Entrepreneurship" Government-Funded Projects" Cost Growth" Markets" " Antennas and Signal Propagation" Signal Detection and Noise" Deep Space Network" Copyright 2015 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.! 1! 2!
2 3! A Sample of Augustine s Laws" Law Number V! One-tenth of the participants produce over one-third of the output. Increasing the number of participants merely reduces the average output.!! Law Number X! Bulls do not win bullfights; people do. People do not win people fights; lawyers do.!! Law Number XIII! There are many highly successful businesses in the United States. There are also many highly paid executives. The policy is not to intermingle the two.! 4!
3 A Sample of Augustine s Laws" Law Number XV" The last 10 percent of performance generates one-third of the cost and two-thirds of the problems.!! Law Number XVI! In the year 2054, the entire defense budget will purchase just one aircraft. This aircraft will have to be shared by the Air Force and Navy 3-1/2 days each per week except for leap year, when it will be made available to the Marines for the extra day.!! Law Number XVII! Software is like entropy. It is difficult to grasp, weighs nothing, and obeys the Second Law of Thermodynamics; i.e., it always increases.! 5! A Sample of Augustine s Laws" Law Number XXII" If stock market experts were so expert, they would be buying stock, not selling advice.!! Law Number XXV" A revised schedule is to (an Aerospace) business what a new season is to an athlete or a new canvas to an artist.!! Law Number XXVI" If a sufficient number of management layers are superimposed on each other, it can be assured that disaster is not left to chance.!! Law Number XLVIII" The more time you spend talking about what you have been doing, the less time you have to spend doing what you have been talking about. Eventually, you spend more and more time talking about less and less until finally you spend all your time talking about nothing.! 6!
4 Commercial Enterprise May Hold the Key" BUT Is NASA spreading itself too thin by supporting commercial enterprise AND developing the ORION- SLS vehicles?! 7! 8!
5 9! 10!
6 11! 12!
7 Commercial and Economic Impact of Spaceflight: An Overview" Little to show (for manned spaceflight) except circus. " Real payoff in space (unmanned spacecraft) has been funded by the remaining one-third of the civilian space budget " What is spaceflight actually for?" NASA Technology Utilization Program (1962)" Value in the eye of the beholder" Philip Scranton, Ch. 8, NASA-SP-4801" 13! Commercial and Economic Impact of Spaceflight: An Overview" Expectation of wider contributions to society" Indirect impact of NASA on American industry" Spacefaring innovations embedded in a transnational culture of technological experimentation" NASA projects as exploratory development" NASA, military, industry, and university innovations entwined" Philip Scranton, Ch. 8, NASA-SP-4801" 14!
8 Commercial and Economic Impact of Spaceflight: An Overview" NASA as the largest dispersed technology developer, shaping aspirations into form and function" NASA as the hub of Big Engineering" NASA s domains" " Impact on space operations" " Impact on enterprise for producing and managing space projects" " Impact on operations derived from space experimentation" Communications" Philip Scranton, Ch. 8, NASA-SP-4801" 15! Commercial and Economic Impact of Spaceflight: An Overview" Materials processing, absence of commercial use of space; however, impetus for improved manufacturing methods and materials on Earth" Advances in instrumentation, measurements, and navigation" New management techniques" Quality control and reliability" Philip Scranton, Ch. 8, NASA-SP-4801" 16!
9 !" $20M prize for first craft to"!" Land on the Moon, move 500 m, and send video back to Earth by End of 2015"!" 18 contenders"!" Milestone prizes ($6M total) for achieving intermediate objectives by Sept 2014"!" US (2), Indian, German, and Japanese finalists"!" Actual mission cost estimates: $10-100M" 17! Communications & Telemetry! 18!
10 Antenna Gain" Isotropic (uniform) radiation of power, P, from the center of a sphere of radius, r" Power per unit area (power density) of the sphere s surface" p = P 4!r 2 Power received from isotropic radiator over area, S" P S = Sp! = beamwidth half-angle 19! Antenna Gain" Power received over area, S, if all power is focused uniformly on that area by antenna with gain, G" P S = GSp S = P Power density in S with idealized focused antenna" p S = P GS Idealized antenna gain" G = P Sp S = 4!r2 S 20!
11 Relationship of Antenna Area and Signal Wavelength to Antenna Gain" Effective antenna gain (transmitting or receiving)" G eff = 4!A eff " 2 c = speed of light! 3"10 8 m / s f = carrier signal frequency, Hz A eff = effective antenna area,m 2 # = carrier signal wavelength, m = c / f 21! Relationship of Antenna Area and Signal Wavelength to Antenna Gain" P r (watts) P t (watts) = G t A r Power received from the transmitter" P r = p r A r = G t P t A r 4!r 2 p r = power density at receiving antenna A r = effective area of receiving antenna G t = gain of transmitting antenna P t = transmitted power r = distance between transmitting and receiving antennas Power ratio" P Power Ratio (decibels, db) = 10log r (watts) 10 P t (watts) 4!r 2 22!
12 Antenna Characteristics" 23! Typical Antenna Pattern" Gain vs. angle from boresight axis (2-D)" G eff is average gain over beamwidth" Beamwidth variously defined as 3 db cone angle or half-angle" 24!
13 Electric and Magnetic Fields of a Dipole Antenna" 25! Characteristics of Typical Spacecraft Antennas" Conical log " spiral antenna" Gain(dBi)! 10log Antenna Gain Isotropic Antenna Gain 26!
14 Alternative Expressions for Power Ratio" P r (watts) P t (watts) = G A t r 4!r = A A t r 2 "r ( ) 2 = A t A r f 2 = G tg r " 2 = G ra t ( cr) 2 4!r 2 4!r 2 Power ratio in decibels"! 10log 10 " # P r P t $ % & (db) = G t (db) +10log 10 A r (db) '10log 10 4((dB) ' 20log 10 r(db) 27! P r P t (db) =! # " P r P t $ & % Detected Power" Receiver s detected power includes components from" " transmitter s carrier signal" " information signal" " noise" ideal (db) ' Absorbtion(dB) ' Rainfall(dB) ± Multipath(dB) ' Cross Polarization(dB) P r = P carrier + P information! P carrier P d = P r + P n 28!
15 Noise Sources" Receiver thermal and front end noise" Atmospheric, cosmic, solar, and manmade noise" P n = P nreceiver + P natmosphere + P nsolar + P ncosmic + P nman!made 29! Receiver Noise" Power and temperature" P n = ktw (watts) ( ) T = NF(dB)/10!1 ( ) = 290 F!1 k = Boltzmann' s constant =1.38!10 "23 w " s/ K T = effective receiver temperature, K W = bandwidth,hz NF = receiver noise figure F = receiver noise factor Power density" N o = P n /W = kt (watts / Hz) 30!
16 Receiver Noise" 31! Solar Noise" Noise proportional to (wavelength) n or 1/(frequency) n " 32!
17 Cosmic and Atmospheric Noise" P n! " n! 1 f n 33! Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Information Content" S N = P r(watts) P n (watts) " P r (db)!10log P (watts) % r $ ' # 1 watt & S N db ( ) = P r (db)! P n (db) Channel capacity"! S + N ( ) = W log 2 C bits / s " #! S = W log 2 " # N +1 $ % & N $ % & W = bandwidth,hz 34!
18 Information Bandwidth" f c = carrier frequency, Hz W =!f = f 2 " f 1 = information signal bandwidth,hz Low-frequency information signal superimposed on (i.e., modulates) high-frequency carrier radio signal for transmission" Power spectral density of transmitted signal" Information signal formats" " Analog (continuous)" " Digital (discrete)" " Digitized analog (i.e., A/D conversion)" 35! Signal-to-Noise Ratio per Bit, E b /N o" E b : energy per bit N o : noise power spectral density E b N o = S N W R S = received signal power N = received noise power W = bandwidth of receiver R = data bit rate How would you express this in decibels?" 36!
19 Link Budget for a Digital Data Link" E b N o = S N W R Link budget design goal is to achieve satisfactory E b /N o by choice of link parameters" E b N o = P t L l G t L s L a G r kt s R in decibels?" P t = transmitter power L l = transmitter! to! antenna line loss G t = transmit antenna gain L s = space loss L a = transmission path loss G r = receive antenna gain k = Boltzmann' s constant T s = system noise temperature 37! Typical Spacecraft System Noise Temperature" 38!
20 Free-Space Laser Communication" Diffraction limit of electro-magnetic beam is proportional to #/d" # = Wavelength" d = aperture (diameter) of beam source" Radio frequency wavelengths: cm m" Optical wavelengths: $m" Up to 10 6 less beam spread for optical communication" Lesh, JPL, 1999" 39! Lesh, JPL, 1999" 40!
21 Optical Communication Advantage Compared to Ka-Band RF! (One-Way Pluto example, same power input)" db" Factor" Comparison" 13! Data Rate Increase! 4.9 kbs vs. 270 bps! 26! Smaller Spacecraft 10 cm vs. 2 m! Aperture! 4! Less Transmitted 1 W vs. 2.7 W! Power Required! 7! Lower Transmitter 5% vs. 28%! Efficiency! 2! Lower System 24% vs. 40%! Efficiencies! 3! Atmospheric Loss! -! 10! Smaller Ground Station! 10 m vs. 34 m! Lesh, JPL, 1999" 41! Good News/Bad News for Optical Communication! " Good news" Higher bit rates possible" Optical beams are narrower" Energy concentrated on receiver" Bad News" Optical beams are narrower" Narrow beams must pointed more precisely" Must track intended receiver" RF may be preferred for acquisition, command, and tracking" Effects of cloud cover" Lesh, JPL, 1999" 42!
22 43! 44!
23 LADEE Lunar LaserCom Space Terminal" 45! LADEE LaserCom Components" 46!
24 Deep Space Network" Radar tracking (range, elevation, and azimuth)" Radiated signal power drops off as 1/r 2 " Reflected return signal power drops off as 1/r 2 " Skin track return signal power drops off as 1/r 4 " Beacon (or transponder) on cooperative target" " Receives radiated signal" " Re-transmits fresh signal" Known time delay" Different frequency" " Return signal power drops off as 1/r 2 " Goldstone 70-m Antenna" 47! Deep Space Network Coverage" JPL Control Center" 48!
25 Next Time:! The Future of Space Flight! Spacecraft Power & Thermal Control! 49!!upplemental Ma"rial # 50!
26 Communications Geometry" Ground station communication and tracking limited by its minimum elevation angle, %! Fixed (non-steerable) antenna must have sufficient beamwidth to transmit or receive" Antenna gains and radiated power must be adequate, given slant range and noise environment" 51! Beamwidth Coverage" Broad or narrow coverage may be desired" Beamwidth of reflector antenna"!(cone) " 21 fd,deg f = carrier signal frequency,ghz d = reflector diameter,m 52!
27 One-Way Radio Communication Calculation Nomogram (GE, 1960)" 53! One-Way Radio Communication Calculation Nomogram (GE, 1960)" Nomogram Components" 54!
28 Atmospheric Attenuation, Multipath, and Ionospheric Effects on Space-Earth Communication" P r! (db) = P t " # P r P t $ % & ideal (db) ' Absorbtion(dB) ' Rainfall(dB) ±Multipath(dB) ' Cross Polarization(dB) 55! Analog Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Modulation of Carrier Signal" 56!
29 Digital Amplitude-, Frequency-, and Phase-Shift Modulation of Carrier Signal" 57! Bit Error Rate vs. E b /N o " Goal is to achieve lowest bit error rate (BER) with lowest E b /N o" Implementation losses increase required E b /N o " Link margin is the difference between the minimum and actual E b / N o" BER can be reduced by error-correcting codes" " Number of bits transmitted is increased" " Additional check bits allow errors to be detected and corrected" 58!
30 DSCS-3" Communications Carrier Frequencies" 59! Typical Command and Telemetry Characteristics" TDRS" 60!
31 Typical Communication Satellite Transponder Characteristics" 61!
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