Energy Harvesting Power Supplies and Applications

Transcription

1 Peter Spies studied electrical engineering at the University of Erlangen, Germany, and graduated with a Dipl-Ing degree in In 2010, he finished his PhD thesis on power saving in mobile communication devices. Since 1998, he is working in the Power Efficient Systems Department of the Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits (Fraunhofer IIS), Germany. Since 2001, he is group manager of the Integrated Energy Supplies Group, where he is involved in the research and design of power and battery management and energy harvesting. Dr. Spies group focuses on integrated circuit and system design as well as software development, with wireless sensor networks and hybrid and electrical vehicles as the most important applications. Markus Pollak studied electrical engineering at the University of Erlangen and graduated with a Dipl-Ing degree in Since February 2001, he is working at the Power Efficient Systems Department of Fraunhofer IIS. He is involved in the design of integrated circuits for RF transceivers and power management circuits. His recent projects are concerned with DC DC converters for energy harvesting applications and programming of microcontrollers for wireless transceivers. V062 ISBN Spies Mateu Pollak Loreto Mateu obtained her BS in industrial engineering in 1999, MS in electronic engineering in 2002, and PhD in 2009 with a thesis titled Energy Harvesting from Human Passive Power from the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain. In June 2007, she joined the Power Efficient Systems Department at Fraunhofer IIS as a research engineer. Since 2012, she is chief scientist of the Power Efficient Systems Department at Fraunhofer IIS. Her research interests include AC-DC and DC-DC converters as well as electrical modeling for energy harvesting applications. Handbook of Handbook of Energy Harvesting Power Supplies and Applications This book describes the fundamentals and principles of energy harvesting and provides the necessary theory and background to develop energy harvesting power supplies. It explains the overall system design and gives quantitative assumptions on environmental energy. It explains different system blocks for an energy harvesting power supply and the trade-offs. The text covers in detail different energy transducer technologies such as piezoelectric, electrodynamic, and thermoelectric generators and solar cells from the material to the component level and explains the appropriate power management circuits required in these systems. Furthermore, it describes and compares storage elements such as secondary batteries and supercapacitors to select the most appropriate one for applications. Besides power supplies that use ambient energy, the book presents systems that use electromagnetic fields in the radio frequency range. Finally, it discusses different application fields and presents examples of self-powered electronic systems to illustrate the content of the preceding chapters. Energy Harvesting Power Supplies and Applications edited by Peter Spies Loreto Mateu Markus Pollak

2 Handbook of Energy Harvesting Power Supplies and Applications

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4 Pan Stanford Series on Renewable Energy Volume 2 Handbook of Energy Harvesting Power Supplies and Applications editors Preben Maegaard edited by Anna Krenz Wolfgang PalzSpies Loreto Mateu Markus Pollak Peter The Rise of Modern Wind Energy Wind Power for the World

5 Published by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. Penthouse Level, Suntec Tower 3 8 Temasek Boulevard Singapore editorial@panstanford.com Web: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Handbook of Energy Harvesting Power Supplies and Applications Copyright c 2015 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. ISBN (Hardcover) ISBN (ebook) PrintedintheUSA

6 Contents Preface xv 1 SystemDesign 1 Loreto Mateu and Peter Spies 1.1 Introduction Input Energy Energy Transducer Rectifier Power Management Unit Load Device Continuous and Discontinuous Load Operation Low-Power Sensors Low-Power Microcontrollers and Transceivers Energy Storage Element Combination of Several Input Energies Energy Neutral Operation General Conditions for Energy Neutral Operation Conditions for Energy Neural Operation with N Power Consumption Modes Conclusion 39 2 Input Energy 45 Loreto Mateu, William Kaal, Monika Freunek Müller, Birger Zimmermann, and Uli Würfel 2.1 Mechanical Energy Characterization of Parameters Characterization of vibrations Kinetic energy harvesting model 49

7 vi Contents Finding optimal positions on the mechanical structure Measurement Setup Accelerometers Experimental Setup Electrodynamic vibrators Light Spectra of Common Light Sources Measurement Techniques Pyranometers Pyrheliometers Sunshine recorders Silicon irradiance sensors Luxmeter Spectroradiometers Numerical approach: ray-tracing programs Experimental Setup Solar simulators Thermal Energy Characterization of Parameters Measurement Setup Experimental Setup Thermoelectric cooler model 74 3 Piezoelectric Transducers 79 Bernhard Brunner, Matthias Kurch, and William Kaal 3.1 History Material Processing Physical Phenomena Mechatronic Model Power Conversion Impedance of the Electric Network Weak Coupling Optimal Resistance and Power Application of Several Identical Transducers Analytical Consideration Series Connection of Two Generators 111

8 Contents vii Discussion of the results Experimental Verification Conclusion Electromagnetic Transducers 119 Dirk Spreemann and Bernd Folkmer 4.1 Literature Review and State of the Art in Electromagnetic Vibration Transducers Conclusions from the Literature Introduction Mechanical Subsystem Linear Spring System Nonlinear Spring System Electromagnetic Subsystem Basics on Electromagnetic Induction Electrical Network Representation Overall System General Behaviour First-Order Power Estimation Characterization and Handling of Machinery-Induced Vibration Conclusions from Analytical Analyses Introduction Available Vibration: The Basis for Development Coupling Architecture and Boundary Condition Optimization Procedure Calculation of Magnetic Flux Gradient General Calculation Method Optimization Results Resonator Design Transduction Factor Frequency Response Characterisation Electrostatic Transducers 175 Daniel Hoffmann and Bernd Folkmer 5.1 Physical Principle Introduction 175

9 viii Contents Energy Conversion Mechanism Switched Operation Scheme Continuous Operation Scheme Implementation General Design Considerations Electrode Geometry Analytical and Numerical Models Analytical Description Numerical Model Power Output and Device Behavior Device Design Device Behavior Device Fabrication and Characterization Fabrication Characterization Optimization Considerations Thermoelectric Generators 217 Robert Hahn and Jan D. König 6.1 Physical Principles The Seebeck Effect Peltier Effect Thomson Effect Kelvin Relation Conversion Efficiency and Figure of Merit Thermoelectric Generation Efficiency Thermoelectric Figure of Merit Thermoelectric Materials Theoretical Material Aspects Materials Research Technical Relevant Materials Thermoelectric Module Construction Microgenerators Microgenerators in Vertical Configuration Microgenerators in Horizontal Configuration System-Level Design and TEG Integration into Energy-Harvesting Applications 248

10 Contents ix Model at System Level Human Body Integration of TEGs for Wearable Electronics Exploitation of Temperature Changes and Transient TEG Behaviour Conclusions Solar Cells 257 Monika Freunek Müller, Birger Zimmermann, and Uli Würfel 7.1 Photovoltaic Devices Maximum Efficiency of Solar Cells Photovoltaics in Micro Energy Harvesting Applications Demonstrated Efficiencies at Standard Test Conditions Demonstrated Efficiencies and Measurements at Indoor Conditions Outside and Standard Conditions Summary outdoor conditions Indoor Conditions Summary indoor conditions Tailoring the Current-, Voltage-, and Power Output of Photovoltaic Cells Optimization of the Circuitry Geometry Layout for Specific Applications Module Layout for a System without Energy Storage Layout of a System with Energy Storage Concluding Remarks DC DC Converters 295 Markus Pollak 8.1 Linear Regulators Electrical Circuit Analytical Model Efficiency Calculation Design Optimization 298

11 x Contents 8.2 Switching Regulators Buck Converter Physical principles Electrical circuit Analytical model Efficiency calculation Design optimization Boost Converter Physical principles Electrical circuit Analytical model Efficiency calculation Buck-Boost Converter Physical principles Electrical circuit Analytical model Flyback Converter Charge Pump Physical principles Electrical circuit Analytical model Efficiency calculation Design optimization Meissner Oscillator Based Converter Physical principles Electrical circuit Simulation results Matching Loads Analytical model Physical principles Electrical circuit Efficiency considerations AC DC Converters 351 Loreto Mateu and Peter Spies 9.1 AC DC Converters for Piezoelectric Transducers Voltage Doubler Half-Wave Rectifier with Voltage Doubler 354

12 Contents xi Electrical circuit Efficiency measurement Direct Discharge Circuit Physical principles Electrical circuit Analytical model Design optimization Direct Discharge Circuit in Conjunction with DC DC Converters Physical principles Efficiency optimization Design optimization employing a maximum power point tracking algorithm Electrical circuit employing a maximum power point tracking algorithm Electrical circuit employing a fixed duty cycle Efficiency calculation of the circuit employing a fixed duty cycle Non-linear Techniques Parallel SSHI technique Series SSHI technique SECE technique Low-frequency pulsed resonant technique AC DC inductive step-up converter Design optimization for non-linear techniques AC DC Converters for Electrostatic Transducers Physical Principles AC DC Electrical Circuit for the Charge-Constrained Conversion Cycle Efficiency Calculation for the Charge-Constrained Conversion Cycle Electrical Circuit for the Voltage-Constrained Energy Conversion Cycle 405

13 xii Contents Efficiency Calculation for the Voltage-Constrained Energy Conversion Cycle AC DC Converters for Electrodynamic Transducers Generic AC DC Converters Dual Polarity Boost Converter Direct AC DC Conversion Physical principles Electrical circuit of the boost and buck-boost converter Analytical model of the boost and buck-boost converter Efficiency of the boost and buck-boost converter Design optimization of the boost and buck-boost converter Electrical circuit of the secondary side diode-based converter Efficiency of the secondary side diode-based converter Electrical circuit of the split capacitor converter Efficiency of the split capacitor converter Design optimization of the secondary side diode-based converter and the split capacitor converter Conclusion Radio Frequency Power Transmission 435 Josef Bernhard, Tobias Dräger, and Alexander Popugaev 10.1 Introduction Physical Principles Electromagnetic Field: Generation and Radiation Infinitesimally small electric and magnetic dipoles Antenna field zones 439

14 Contents xiii Frequency Bands: Characteristics and Usage Basic Concept Inductive Coupling Far-Field Radio Transmission Design Optimization Generation and Amplification of High-Frequency Signals Antennas and Matching Low-frequency systems: coil antennas High-frequency systems Voltage Rectification and Stabilization Efficiency of Wireless Power Transmission Low-Frequency Transmission Efficiency High-Frequency Transmission Efficiency System Efficiency Example Applications: Passive RFID Systems Electrical Buffer Storage for Energy Harvesting 463 Robert Hahn and Kai-C. Möller 11.1 Introduction Physical Principles Secondary Batteries Solid-State Thin-Film Lithium Batteries Supercapacitors Realization of Micro Secondary Battery Technology Coin-Type Cells Lithium-Ion/Lithium Polymer Batteries Solid-State Thin-Film Batteries Other Micro Batteries Summary Battery Dynamic Behavior and Equivalent Circuits Outlook Applications of Energy Harvesting Power Supplies 515 Peter Spies 12.1 Building Automation 519

15 xiv Contents System Architecture and Application Devices Converters Condition Monitoring System Architecture Application Devices Converters Structural Health Monitoring System Architecture Application Devices Converters Transport Tyre Pressure Monitoring Aeronautics Logistics System Architecture and Application Devices Converters Consumer Electronics System Architecture Application Devices Converters Conclusions 563 Index 571

16 Preface The power consumption of microelectronic circuits and systems is decreasing by successive development of circuit and semiconductor technology. On the other hand, the efficiency of energy transducers such as solar cells, thermoelectric, and inductive generators is increasing by means of material and system improvements. Thus, energy transducers are able to use ambient energy to power small electronic devices such as sensors, microcontrollers, and wireless transceivers. The technology has come to be known as energy scavenging or energy harvesting, the systems with these power supplies are often called energy-autarkic or self-powered systems. On the one hand, energy harvesting power supplies replace batteries in conventional applications such as consumer products, household appliances, measurement and monitoring applications, and home automation systems. If the battery cannot be replaced completely, at least the length of time before the next recharge can be extended. By eliminating batteries, a significant reduction of waste and battery replacement effort is achieved. On the other hand, new applications such as wireless sensors in remote or inaccessible areas become possible with energy harvesting. Examples are medical implants, integrated sensors in machinery, engines or plants or rotating equipment. Furthermore, unlimited operation and standby time are possible with energy harvesting. The growing research into and development of wireless sensor networks are closely linked to energy harvesting. The full benefits of wireless sensor networks cannot be achieved with wires for power supply or battery replacement maintenance. Especially, with

17 xvi Preface an increasing number of nodes in a mesh network, self-powered electronics are mandatory. At present, several professional applications have established themselves in this domain, mainly in the area of building and home automation, consumer products and condition monitoring. In contrast, a huge new field of applications for energy harvesting, especially for powering wireless sensor nodes are addressed in research and development projects. Contributions to this book have been made by the leading facilities of applied research in Germany, the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft and the Hahn-Schickard-Gesellschaft, which are both applicationoriented research and development providers. They work in publicly funded projects and also conduct research and development for industrial companies around the world. Thus, this book deals with the basics of energy harvesting technology with a focus on application-oriented implementation. Each chapter addresses a special core technology of energy harvesting including the different transducer principles and related materials, power management, storage devices, and system design. The final chapter introduces different applications of energy harvesting and related system architectures and application devices and discusses relevant converter types.