MEMS and Nanotechnology-Based Sensors and Devices for Communications, Medical and Aerospace Applications

Transcription

1 MEMS and Nanotechnology-Based Sensors and Devices for Communications, Medical and Aerospace Applications A.R. Jha, Ph.D. C) CRC Press J Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business AN AUERBACH BOOK

2 Contents Foreword Preface Author xix xxi xxix 1 Highlights and Chronological Developmental History of MEMS Devices Involving Nanotechnology Introduction What Is MEMS? Frequently Used Terms in Nanotechnology MEMS Industry Overview and Sales Projections for MEMS Devices Potential Applications of MEMS Devices in Commercial and Space Systems MEMS for Wireless, Base Stations, Satellites, and Nanosatellites RF-MEMS Amplifier-Switched Filter Bank Capabilities Passive RF-MEMS Components RF-MEMS Technology for Base Station Requirements MEMS Technology for Military Systems Applications Material Requirements for Fabrication of MEMS Devices Types of Nanostructures and Their Properties Surface Plasmon Resonance Ceramics for MEMS Sensors Fabrication of Critical Elements of a MEMS Device 17 v

3 vi MEMS Technology for Electronic Circuits and Detectors for Military Applications Passive MEMS Devices for Commercial, Military, and Space Applications Nanotechnology for Armors to Provide Protection to Soldiers Nanotechnology-Based Biometrie Structures to Monitor Soldier Health Nanomaterials for External Support Muscles and Artificial Muscles for Injured Soldiers on the Battlefield Robotic Arms for Battlefield Applications Portable Radar Using MEMS/Nanotechnology for Military Applications MEMS for Commercial, Industrial, Scientific, and Biomedical System Applications Nanotubes and Nanotube Arrays for Various Applications MEMS-Based Video Projection System Nanotechnology for Photovoltaic Solar Cells and 3-D Lithium Ion Microbatteries for MEMS Devices MEMS Technology for Hard-Disk Drives MEMS Devices for Thermographic Nondestructive Testing MEMS Devices for Uncooled Thermal Imaging Arrays and Cooled Focal Planar Arrays for Various Applications Applications of Nanotechnology in IR and Electro-Optical Sensors for Biomettic and Security Applications Nanotechnology-Based Laser Scanning Systems MEMS-Based Sensors for Detection of Chemical and Biological Threats Potential Applications of Nanophotonic Sensors and Devices MEMS Technology for Photonic Signal Processing and Optical Communications MEMS Technology for Medical Applications MEMS Technology for Satellite Communications and Space Systems Applications MEMS Devices for Auto Industry Applications MEMS Technology for Aerospace System Applications Summary 38 References 39

4 VII 2 Potential Actuation Mechanisms, Their Performance Capabilities, and Applications Introduction Classification of Actuation Mechanisms Structural Requirements and Performance Capabilities of Electrostatic Actuation Mechanism Electrostatic Actuation Mechanism Cantilever Beam Design Requirements Electrostatic Force Computation Pull-In and Pull-Out Voltage Requirements Pull-In Voltage Pull-Out Voltage Electrostatic Microactuator Configurations for Generating Higher Force and Energy Density Capabilities Piezoelectric Actuation Mechanism Structural Material Requirements for Cantilever Beams Threshold Voltage Tip Deflection of the Cantilever Beam Bending Moment of the Cantilever Beam Contact Force Requirements Electrothermal Actuation Mechanism Electromagnetic Actuation Mechanism Pull-In and Pull-Out Magnetomotive Forces Actuation Force due to Induced Magnetic Force Parametric Trade-Off Computations Electrodynamic Actuation Mechanism Electrochemical Actuation Mechanism Classification and Major Benefits of CNT MWCNT Arrays and Electrochemical Actuator Performance Fabrication and Material Requirements for the Actuator Summary 94 References 95 3 Latest and Unique Methods for Actuation Introduction Electrostatic Rotary Microactuator with Improved Shaped Design Performance Limitation of Conventional Parallel-Plate Electrodes ESRM with Tilted Configuration 100

5 3.2.3 Requirements for Optimum Shaped Electrodes Force Generation Computations of Rotary Actuator with Conventional and Tilted Configurations Actuation Force Computation for Conventional Configuration Force Generation Computation for Tilted Configuration Torque-Generating Capability of the Rotary Actuator with Tilted Configuration Optimum Curve Shape of the Electrodes Potential Electrode Shapes Normalized Torque as a Function of Normalized Angular Displacement Parametric Requirements for Optimum Rotary Microactuator 115 Unique Microactuator Design for HHD Applications Introduction Benefits and Design Aspects of a Dual-Stage Servomechanism (or MEMS Piggyback Actuator) Architecture of a Third-Generation Microactuator Performance Capabilities of the MEMS Piggyback Microactuator Force Generation Capability, Displacement Limit, and Mechanical Resonance Frequency Range Electrostatic Force Calculation Mechanical Resonance Frequency Calculation Electrode Mass Computation Displacement (x) as a Function of Gap Size (g) and Number of Electrodes (N) 126 Capabilities of Vertical Comb Array Microactuator Structural Requirements and Critical Design Aspects of VCA Actuator VCAM Performance Comparison with Other Actuators Potential Comb Finger Shapes 130 Capabilities of Bent-Beam Electrothermal Actuators Performance Capabilities and Design Configuration of Bent-Beam Electrothermal Actuators 133

6 ix Brief Description of the BBET Structure Input Power Requirements for BBET Actuators Summary 140 References Packaging, Processing, and Material Requirements for MEMS Devices Introduction Packaging and Fabrication Materials Packaging Material Requirements and Packaging Processes Sealing Methods Effects of Temperature on Packaging Effect of Pressure on Packaging and Device Function Fabrication Aspects for MEMS Devices Incorporating Nanotechnology Thin-Film Capping Requirements for MEMS Devices Chip Capping and Bonding Requirements Transition and Feedthrough Requirements for MEMS Devices Material Requirements for Piezoelectric Actuators Material Requirements for Structural Support, Electrodes, and Contact Pads Requirements for Electrodeposition and Electroplating Materials Impact of Environments on MEMS Performance Impact of Temperature Variations on Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Effects of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity of Materials Used in MEMS Special Alloys Best Suited for MEMS Applications Benefits of CE-Alloys in RF/Microwave MEMS Packaging Benefits of CE-Alloys for Thermal Backing Plates Benefits of CE-Alloys in Integrated Circuit Assemblies Bulk Materials Best Suited for Mechanical Design of MEMS Devices 161

7 X 4.4 Material Requirements for Electrostatic Actuator Components Material Properties for MEMS Membranes Sacrificial Material Requirements for MEMS Devices Three-Dimensional Freely Movable Mechanical Structure Requirements Substrate Materials Best Suited for Various MEMS Devices Soft Dielectric Substrates Hard Dielectric Substrates Electrical Properties of Soft and Hard Substrates Glass-Ceramic Hybrid Substrate for MEMS Para-Electronic Ceramic Substrates for MEMS Applications Insulation and Passivation Layer Materials Material Requirements for MEMS in Aerospace Systems Summary 173 References RF-MEMS Switches Operating at Microwave and mm-wave Frequencies Introduction Operating Principle and Critical Performance Parameters of MEMS Devices Critical Performance Parameters Affected by Environments Two Distinct Configurations of RF-MEMS Switches and Design Aspects Performance Capabilities and Design Aspects of RF-MEMS Shunt Switches Electrostatic Actuation Requirements for the Shunt Switch Using Membranes Sample Calculations for Spring Constant and Pull-in Voltage Computer Modeling Parameters for MEMS Shunt Switch Computation of Upstate and Downstate Capacitances Current Distribution and Series Resistance of the MEMS Bridge Structure Estimates of Switch Inductance and Capacitance Parameters Insertion Loss in a MEMS Switch 188

8 xi Estimation of Series Resistance of the Bridge and Impact of Switch Inductance on the Isolation Typical Upstate and Downstate Insertion Losses in a MEMS Shunt Switch MEMS Shunt Switch Configuration for High Isolation Tuned Two-Bridge Design and Its Performance Capabilities Design Aspects and Performance Capabilities of Four-Bridge Cross Switch High Isolation with Inductively Tuned MEMS Switches MEMS Shunt Switches for Higher mm-wave Frequencies W-Band MEMS Shunt-Capacitive Switch Switching Speed of MEMS Shunt Switches MEMS Switches Using Metallic Membranes Introduction Operating Principle and Design Aspects of Capacitive Membrane Switches RF Performance Parameters of Membrane Shunt Switch RF-MEMS Switches with Low-Actuation Voltage Introduction Fabrication Process Steps and Critical Elements of the Switch Reliability Problems and Failure Mechanisms in the Shunt MEMS Switches RF Performance Capabilities RF-MEMS Series Switches Introduction Description and Design Aspects of the MEMS Series Switch Fabrication Process Steps and Switch Operational Requirements RF Design Aspects RF Performance Parameters of the Switch Effects of Packaging Environments on the Functionality and Reliability of the MEMS Switches Introduction Impact of Temperature on the Functionality and Reliability Impact of Pressure on Switch Reliability and RF Performance 219

9 5.8.4 Effects of Zero-Level Packaging on MEMS Switch Performance Packaging Material Requirements for MEMS Switches Properties and Applications of CE-Alloys for RF-MEMS Devices and Sensors Summary 222 References 223 RF/Microwave MEMS Phase Shifter Introduction Properties and Parameters of CPW Transmission Lines Computations of CPW Line Parameters Distributed MEMS Transmission-Line Phase Shifters Introduction Computations of DMTL Parameters Bragg Frequency Computations Computations of Bridge Impedance (2Г В ) and Phase Velocity (V p ) Insertion Loss in the DMTL Section Design Aspects and DMTL Parameter Requirements for TTD Phase Shifters Operating at mm-wave Frequencies Computations of Unloaded Line Impedance (Z u \), Line Inductance, and Capacitance per Unit Length of the Transmission Line Digital MEMS Distributed X-Band Phase Shifter Design Procedure for mm-wave DMTL Phase Shifters Expression for Phase Shift Optimized Design Parameters for a W-Band DMTL Phase Shifter Two-Bit MEMS DMTL Phase Shifter Designs Design Parameters and Performance Capabilities of 2-Bit, X-Band Phase Shifter Insertion Loss in a DMTL Phase Shifter Digital Version of the DMTL Phase Shifter with 360 Phase Capability Design Parameter Requirements for Digital, 360 Phase Shifter Insertion Loss Contributed by MIM Capacitors and Its Effect on CPW Line Loss Phase Noise Contribution from DMTL Phase Shifters 253

10 XIII 6.6 Multi-Bit Digital Phase Shifter Operating at /fand K 3 Frequencies Introduction Design Aspects and Critical Elements of the MDDM Phase Shifter Ultrawide Band Four-Bit True-Time-Delay MEMS Phase Shifter Operating over dc-40 GHz Introduction Design Requirements and Parameters to Meet Specific Performance for a Wideband 4-Bit, TTD Phase Shifter Performance Parameter of the Device Two-Bit, V-Band Reflection-Type MEMS Phase Shifter Introduction Design Aspects and Performance Capabilities Three-Bit, Ultralow Loss Distributed Phase Shifter Operating over K-Band Frequencies Introduction Design Aspects, Operating Principle, and Description of Critical Elements Three-Bit, V-Band, Reflection-Type Distributed MEMS Phase Shifter Design Aspects and Critical Performance Parameters RF Performance of the 3 db CPW Coupler and the 3-Bit, V-Band Phase Shifter Maximum Phase Shift Available from a Multibridge DMTL Phase Shifter Summary 269 References Applications of Micropumps and Microfluidics Introduction Potential Applications of Micropumps Design Aspects of Fixed-Valve Micropumps Models Most Suited for Performance Optimization Reliable Modeling Approach for MPs with Fixed Valves Electrical and Mechanical Parameters for Low-Order Model Mathematical Expression for Critical Pump Parameters Chamber Parameters 276

11 Fluidic Valve Parameters and Their Typical Values Description of Micropumps with Straight-Channel Configurations Impact of Viscosity and Membrane Parameters on Valve Performance Dynamic Modeling for Piezoelectric Valve-Free Micropumps Introduction Modeling for the Piezoelectric Valve-Free Pump Natural Frequency of the Micropump System Pump Performance in Terms of Critical Parameters Design Aspects and Performance Capabilities of an Electrohydrodynamic Ion-Drag Micropump Introduction Design Concepts and Critical Parameters of an EHD Pump Benefits of EHD Ion-Drag Pumps Critical Design Aspects of Ion-Drag Pump and Electrode Geometries Capabilities of a Ferrofluidic Magnetic Micropump Introduction Design Aspects and Critical Performance Parameters Operational Requirements for Optimum Pump Performance Summary 300 References 301 Miscellaneous MEMS/Nanotechnology Devices and Sensors for Commercial and Military Applications Introduction MEMS Varactors or Tunable Capacitors Benefits and Shortcomings of MEMS Varactors MEMS Varactor Design Aspects and Fabrication Requirements Effects of Nonlinearity Generated by MEMS Capacitors Micromechanical Resonators Introduction Types of Micro-Resonators and Their Potential Applications 311

12 XV Free-Free Beam High-Q Micro-Resonators Structural Design Aspects and Requirements of FFB Micro-Resonators Operational Requirements and Parameters FFB Micro-Resonator Folded-Beam Comb-Transducer Micro-Resonator Clamped-Clamped Beam Micro-Resonator Effects of Environmental Factors on Micro-Resonator Performance Performance Summary of Various Micromechanical Resonators Micromechanical Filters Micromechanical Filter Design Aspects Critical Elements and Performance Parameters of Micromechanical Filters Performance Summary of a Two-Resonator High-Frequency Filter Transceivers Introduction Transceiver Performance Improvement from Integration of Micromechanical Resonator Technology Oscillator Using Micromechanical Resonator Technology Design Concepts and Performance Parameters of the 16.5 khz Oscillator V-Band MEMS-Based Tunable Band-Pass Filters Introduction Design Parameters and Fabrications Techniques for a V-Band MEMS-Filter Performance Parameters of a V-Band, Two-Stage MEMS Tunable Filter MEMS-Based Strain Sensors Introduction Design Aspects and Requirements for Strain Sensor Installation and Calibration Gauge Factor Computation MEMS Interferometric Accelerometers Introduction Design Aspects and Requirements for an Interferometric Accelerometer 338

13 xvi 8.10 MEMS-Based Micro-Heat Pipes Introduction Design Aspects and Critical Parameters of Micro-Heat Pipes MEMS-Based Thin-Film Microbatteries Introduction Critical Design Aspects and Requirements for the 3-D, Thin-Film Microbatteries Projected Performance Parameters of a 3-D, Thin-Film Microbattery Unique Features and Potential Applications of Microbatteries Summary 350 References Materials for MEMS and Nanotechnology-Based Sensors and Devices Introduction Photonic Crystals Photonic Bandgap Fiber Core Material Requirements for PCF Unique Properties of PCFs and Their Potential Applications Nanotechnology-Based Materials and Applications Nanocrystals Photonic Nanocrystals Nanowires and Rods and Their Applications Zinc Oxide Nanowires Silicon Nanowires Zinc Selenium Nanowires Zinc Phosphide Nanowires Cadmium Sulfide Nanowires Iron-Gallium Nanowires Nanoparticles Quantum Dots Applications of Quantum Dots Unique Security Aspects of Quantum Dots Lead Sulfide Quantum Dots with Nonlinear Properties Nanobubbles Applications of Nanobubbles MEMS Deformable Micro-Mirrors 366

14 XVII Applications of MEMS Deformable Mirrors 367 Carbon Nanotubes and CNT Arrays Potential Applications of CNT Arrays Nanostructures/Nanocomposites Using CNT Arrays CNTs as Field Emitters or Electron Sources CNT Technology for Biosensor Chemical and Environmental Applications Nanotube Arrays for Electrochemical Actuators Nanotube Probes and Dispensing Devices 372 Nanotechnology- and MEMS-Based Sensors and Devices for Specific Applications Acoustic Sensors Using Nanotechnology for Underwater Detection Applications MEMS Technology for mm-wave Microstrip Patch Antennas Carbon Nanotube-Based Transistors and Solar Cells Nanotechnology-Based Sensors for Weapon Health and Battlefield Environmental Monitoring Applications Nanotechnology-Based Sensors to Monitor Weapon Health Nanotechnology-Based Sensors to Monitor Battlefield Environmental Conditions MEMS-Based Gyros and Applications MEMS-Based Accelerometers and Applications Material Requirements and Properties for MEMS- and NT-Based Sensors and Devices Introduction Material Requirements for Fabrication of MEMS Sensors and Devices Properties of Materials Required for Mechanical Design of MEMS Devices Properties of Materials Required for Thermal Design of MEMS Devices 381 Summary