CONTENTS. Foreword S. D. Senturia. M. E. Motamedi Acknowledgments

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1 CONTENTS Foreword S. D. Senturia Preface M. E. Motamedi Acknowledgments xv xvii xix 1 Introduction 1 M. E. Motamedi 1.1 Integrated circuits and the evolution of micromachining MEMS review New developments in micro-optics Micro-optics in MEMS: MOEMS overview New developments in optica! Switches Tunable Alters and WDMs Digital mirror devices MOEMS Scanners MOEMS technology applied to telecom Microsystems: Terms and visions MEMS and MOEMS activities worldwide MEMS and MOEMS science worldwide MEMS and MOEMS markets worldwide Scope of this book 20 2 Microfabrication B. Spahn, S. S. Mani 2.1 Introduction Bulk micromachining Wet bulk micromachining Dry bulk micromachining Deep x-ray lithography (DXRL) Surface micromachining CMOS-compatible MEMS and MOEMS Compound-semiconductor-based MEMS and MOEMS Optics-specifäc issues for MOEMS 66 VII

2 Contents Micro-optics 75 H. P. Herzig, E.-B. Kley, M. Cumme, L. C. Wittig 3.1 Introduction History Deflection of light by micro- and nanostructures Refractive and diffractive micro-optics Artificial index material Photonic crystals Resonant Alters Demands on profile shapes Binary and multilevel optics Motivation Fabrication of binary optics structures Fabrication of multilevel structures Concept Diffraction efficiency Technologies for continuous surface profiles Lithographie technologies Technologies based on surface tension Analog lithography Transfer of surface profiles into optical materials Replication Proportional transfer Conclusion Actuation and Sensing 121 L. Que, Y. B. Gianchandani 4.1 Introduction Microactuator MOEMS-related sensors Organization of this chapter Electrostatic actuators Background In-plane actuation Electrostatic electrode actuator Comb drive Scratch drive actuator Linear electrostatic micromotor Rotary electrostatic micromotors Out-of-plane actuation Parallel-plate drive Torsional actuation Three-dimensional actuation Thermal actuators Background 139

3 4.3.2 In-plane actuation Pseudo-bimorph actuator Bent-beam electrothermal actuator U-shaped and Serpentine-shaped electrothermal actuators Linear microvibromotor Rotary actuator Out-of-plane actuation Bimorph and multimorph Symmetrie pseudo-bimorph Three-dimensional actuation 149 Shape memory actuators Background In-plane actuation Linear SMA microaemators SMA microgripper Out-of-plane actuation SMA bimorph Three-dimensional actuation 158 Piezoelectric actuators Background in-plane actuation LIGA piezoelectric actuator Linear microworms Inchworm Rotary micromirror Out-of-plane actuation Bimorph Multilayer cantilever Torsion: 2D scanning mirror Three-dimensional actuation 170 Magnetic actuators Background In-plane actuation Latchable bistable actuator Magnetic micromotor Out-of-plane actuation Cantilever and membrane actuation Torsional actuation Three-dimensional actuation 185 MOEMS-related sensors Displacement sensors Chemical sensors Fluorescence detection sensors Inertial sensors: accelerometers Pressure sensors

4 Contents Micro-Optic Components, Testing, and Applications 211 M. E. Motamedi, J. Schwider 5.1 Micro-optic components Micro-optical lenses Vapor deposition Mass transport Liquid cryslal optical components ßeam-shaping optical components Optical collimator Optical transformer Micro-optical testing Optical profile measurement Optical profilometers using focus detection Optical profilometers based on white iight interferometry Surface deviation measurements Spherical microlenses Cylindrical microlenses Wave aberralion measurement Weak phase objeets Microlenses as strong phase objeets Cylindrical lenses Shearing methods and wavefront sensors Micro-optics applications Beam steering Microlens and FPA Integration Micro-optics Integration Device characterization 276 Fiber Optic Systems 283 7?. Gering 6.1 Introduction Fundamentals Optical fiber types Key parameters of fiber optic components Direct fiber or waveguide movement Manipulation in a collimated beam Fiber collimators and collimator arrays Fiber arrays Microlens array requirements Fabrication of microlens arrays Fiber array and microlens array mounting techniques Fiber optic components with MOEMS Variable optical attenuators Dynamic gain and Channel equalizers Fiber optic switches 303

5 Conlenls XI Switches with direct fiber or waveguide movement Switches with 2D MOEMS Digital matrix switches Switch matrices with 3D MOEMS Multimode über switches Tunable sources and filters Summary 319 Optical Scanning 323 T. Bourouina, H. Fujita, G. Reyne, M. E. Motamedi 7.1 Introduction Operation principles and classifications of optical Scanners Scanning Systems utilizing mechanical structures Tilting micromirrors Lens Scanners Micromotor Scanners Mirrors with a leverage mechanism Surface*micromachined mirrors Multidimensional scanning Microactuators designed for scanning Electrostatic Scanners Electrostatic actuators with parallel electrodes Electrostatic actuation with tapered electrodes Electrostatic comb-drive surface-micromachined Scanners Electrostatic comb drive for out-of-plane tilting mirrors Piezoelectric Scanners Scanners using thin-film piezoelectric actuators Piezoelectric Scanners in hybrid technologies Electrothermal Scanners Principle of scanning Device structural design Characterization and testing Magnetic Scanners Electromagnetic Scanners Magnetostrictive Scanners Comparative characteristics Environmental and survival testing Applications to commercial products Applications of MEMS movable mirrors Image display Systems Display Systems using a single Scanner Display Systems using arrays of light defiectors Three-dimensional display 357

6 xn Contents Components for optical communication A digital (crossbar, 2D) switch array Analog (beam-steering, 3D) switch 359 Display and Imaging Systems 369 H. Urey, D. L. Dickensheets 8.1 Introduction Display Systems Retinal scanning displays MEMS Scanners for display applications System Performance Gräting Light Valve displays Pixel structure and Operation Pixel Performance System Performance Digital micromirror device Pixel structure Pixel Operation Intensity modulation and switching time Fabrication System Performance Other MEMS display technologies Imaging Systems Scanning imaging Systems Confocal imaging Systems Other MEMS-based scanned43eam Systems Scanned-probe imaging Aberration correction for scanned imaging Systems MOEM spatial light modulators in scanned imaging Systems Array-based imaging Systems (focal plane Systems) Thermal imaging focal plane arrays 432 Adaptive Optics 453 S. S. Olivier 9.1 Introduction History of adaptive optics Conventional deformable-mirror technology Motivations for MEMS deformable mirrors The center for adaptive optics The Coherent Communications, Imaging, and Targeting project Membrane deformable micromirrors Polysilicon deformable micromirrors Single crystal Silicon deformable micromirrors Metal deformable micromirrors 469

7 Contents xm 9.6 Packaging and electronics Future trends and challenges MEMS and MOEMS CAD and Simulation 477 R. Hamza, J. M. Kamm, P. Nachtergaele Introduction 3D device Simulation Introduction Process Simulation FEM and BEM Simulation Introduction FEM Simulation BEM analysis Comparison of FEM and BEM Meshing Noncontinuum mcthods Actuator de sign and Simulation Optical Introduction Simulation of thermal actuators Simulation of electrostatic actuators solvers Introduction Propagati on phenomena Optical theories Mathematical techniques and approximations Codes System-level simulations Optimization Statistical analysis Dedicated MOEMS Simulation and cosimulation System Simulation example pull-in computation Packaging Simulation Reduced- order modeling Example application: Reduction of a micromirror Physical tools and veriücation Design ruie checking, extractors, layout versus schematic, and parasitics Material, process, and reliability issues Conclusions MEMS and MOEMS Packaging 515 A. P. Malshe, J. P. O'Connor 11.1 Overview Background and introduction 515

8 xiv Contents Mixed Signals, mixed domains, and mixed scales packaging: Towards the next generation of application-specific integrated Systems Micro-electro-mechanical Systems Challenges in MEMS System integration Release and stiction Dicing Diehandling Wafer-level encapsulation Stress Outgassing Testing State of the art in MEMS and MOEMS packaging Summary and future directions Packaging considerations and guidelines related to the Digital Micromirror Device Introduction and background to MOEMS devices and particularly the DMD Parameters influencing DMD packaging DMD package design DMD diesize Package piece parts Substrate design Window design Package size Headspace getters DMD hermetic package assembly Future packaging challenges MEMS and MOEMS Materials 545 W. D. Cowan 12.1 Introduction Effects of materials on MOEMS Measuring materials properties Water curvature Microstructures In-process monitoring methods Residual stress engineering Conclusions 562 Problems and Exercises 565 Acronyms 589 Index 603