General License Course. 1General Class License (Rexburg Hams (C) 2015)

Transcription

1 General License Course 1

2 Day 1 Introductions Course Overview Regulations & Licensing HF Operating Techniques Electronics Theory 2

3 Introductions (Instructors) Todd Smith N7TMS Bob Hodgen KB7WPS Mike Odom KJ7FX Ron Kinville K5CTR Keland Draney KM7G 2014 Technician License Course 3

4 State your name Introductions (Students) Call Sign, phonetically A little about yourself. Why are you taking this course? 2014 Technician License Course 4

5 Logistics Exits Restrooms Drinking Fountains Vending Machines 5

6 Expectations Class will start and end on time. Instructor will be prepared for each topic. Students will be prepared to learn. Ham radio is not a spectator sport! Active participation during class discussions is vital. 6

7 Course Logistics Dates: October 31, November 7 & 14 Times: 8:00 am 12:00 pm Exam Session: November 21, 9:00 am Course URL Online Practice Exams 7

8 General Class Introduction 8

9 1-1 Reasons to Upgrade More Frequencies More Communication Options New Technical Opportunities More Fun! 9

10 1-2 10

11 1-3 The General Class Exam 35 multiple choice questions Pool 456 questions (June 2015 June 2019) 26+ correct to pass Only slightly more technical than the Technician exam. 11

12 3-3 Previously Licensed? As of 2015, if you were previously licensed as General, Advanced, or Amateur Extra and your license has expired, pass element 2 (Technician exam) and be restored to your former license class. 12

13 1-7 Studying for the Exam Use the book Study with a friend ONLINE PRACTICE EXAMS 13

14 1-9 Testing Process Register at Bring: Original AND a photocopy of FCC license Two [additional] forms of identification Simple calculator Black/Blue pen and pencil $14 (cash) 14

15 3-3 Examiner Rules Exam administered by three VEs VE s must be registered with 1 of 14 VECs General Class license or higher 18 years or older 15

16 1-9, 3-6 Passed the Exam Congratulations! CSCE Use /AG in General bands until upgrade appears in FCC database 16

17 Procedures and Practices 17

18 2-1 Chapter 2 HF Operating Techniques Interference Modes HF Receiving HF Transmitting Emergency Operations 18

19 2-1 Basic Operating - VFO HF operation is not channelized Continuous tuning 19

20 2-2 Basic Operating - CQ Phone CQ CQ CQ, this is [call sign x 3] CW (or digital) CQ CQ CQ de [call sign x 3] Breaking in Phone: just give your call sign CW: BK [call sign x 1] 20

21 2-2 Selecting a Frequency Look for someone else calling CQ Choose an appropriate band Check your frequency restrictions Follow the band plan Avoid interference 21

22 2-3 Avoid Interference There will always be some noise Check for other stations ( QRL? ) Be flexible Recommended Signal Separation CW Hz SSB khz RTTY Hz PSK Hz 22

23 2-3 Nets and Schedules Many on-air activities are scheduled in advance. Person-to-person contacts Nets Contest Always have a Plan B 23

24 2-4 Band Plans Where a DX window is specified in a US band plan or contest rules, contact between stations in the 48 contiguous United States and Canada are discouraged. 24

25 2-5 Maintain a Log Typical log contains Date and Time Frequency or band Station s call sign Name, signal report, equipment Establishes the identity of the control operator at any date and time in case it is questioned by the FCC or others. 25

26 2-6 Types of Interference Harmful Interference Interference which seriously degrades, obstructs or repeatedly interrupts [communication]. Malicious, deliberate or willful interference 26

27 2-6 Avoiding Interference Start with reasonable expectations Hone your frequency selection skills Maximize the enjoyment of other operators Operate by the Golden Rule 27

28 2-6 Reacting to Interference Be flexible Change frequency Know how to operate your receiver Understand the effects of shifting propagation Plan ahead Keep a cool head Be flexible! 28

29 Modes of Operation

30 2-9 HF Receiving Selectivity Sensitivity RIT vs. XIT QRM vs. QRN 30

31 2-10 HF Transmitting PTT vs. Foot Switch vs. VOX Heavy use of phonetics Q-Signals Do NOT use 10 codes 31

32 2-11 CW Morse Code Very much alive and well! Straight Key vs. Paddle vs. Bug 32

33 2-12 Prosigns and Abbreviations CQ de N7TMS K KB7WPS de N7TMS KN de N7TMS AR SK QRS vs. QRQ QRV, QSL, QSO 33

34 2-13 Emergency Operation ARES Amateur Radio Emergency Service Sponsored by ARRL Provide communications assistance to local and regional government and relief agencies Organization Operator EC DEC SEC SM 34

35 2-13 Emergency Operation RACES Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service Provide communications for civil defense purposes during local, regional, or national civil emergencies. Must register with a local civil defense organization 35

36 2-14 Distress Calls Receiving Acknowledge the calling station Receive the location of the emergency and the nature of the needed assistance Relay the information to proper authorities Stay on Frequency 36

37 2-15 Distress Calls Making Voice: Mayday Mayday Mayday CW: SOS SOS SOS Identify with your call sign State the your location and nature of emergency Describe the type of assistance required 37

38 3-1 Rules & Regulations 38

39 3-1 Regulatory Bodies International Telecommunication (ITU) Federal Communication Commission (FCC) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 39

40 3-7 Frequency Privileges HF Frequencies MHz Remember λ = 300 / f Bands Meters 40

41 3-8 WARC Bands World Administration Radio Conference 1979: 30, 17, and 12 meters (10, 18, 24 MHz) 2003: 60 meters (5 MHz) 41

42 3-8 Beacons Used for observation of propagation and reception Many beacons exist on the 10 meter (28 MHz) band Operation limited to certain frequency ranges and 100 W PEP 42

43 3-9 Frequency Coordination Volunteers No formal authority The FCC expects amateurs to use and respect the local frequency coordination process as a matter of good amateur practice. 43

44 3-9 Third-Party Traffic Sending message on behalf of someone who is not a licensed Amateur Must be non-commercial, personal unimportant nature or related to emergency or disaster relief Okay to communicate with other countries unless the country notifies the ITU otherwise 44

45 3-11 Third-Party Traffic Never on behalf of someone whose amateur license has been suspended or revoked and not reinstated International third-party traffic prohibited unless specifically allowed See table 3.3 on page

46 3-12 Written Records Logs are recommended; not required Required information Call sign of other amateurs using your station Antenna information used on 60 meters 46

47 1-1 Good Amateur Practices Amateur stations should be operated in conformance with good engineering and good amateur practice FCC reserves the right to rule 47

48 3-13 Transmission Restrictions Max power = 1500 W Use minimum power necessary 30 meters: <200 W PEP 60 meters: <100 W ERP 48

49 3-14 Symbol Rates and Bandwidth 49

50 Components and Circuits 50

51 4-2 Ohm s Law Refresher P = I 2 x R and P = E 2 / R 51

52 How many watts of electrical power are used if 400 VDC is supplied to an 800 ohm load? A. 0.5 watts B. 200 watts C. 400 watts D watts P = E 2 / R 52

53 How many watts of electrical power are used if 400 VDC is supplied to an 800 ohm load? A. 0.5 watts B. 200 watts C. 400 watts D watts P = E 2 / R 53

54 How many watts of electrical power are used by 12 VDC light bulb that draws 0.2 amperes? A. 2.4 watts B. 24 watts C. 6 watts D. 60 watts P = E x R 54

55 How many watts of electrical power are used by 12 VDC light bulb that draws 0.2 amperes? A. 2.4 watts B. 24 watts C. 6 watts D. 60 watts P = E x R 55

56 4-3 Decibel A standard way of referring to power or voltage ratios db = 10 log 10 (power ratio) = 20 log 10 (voltage ratio) Note: double the power = 3 db gain 56

57 4-5 Root Mean Square The amount of ac voltage that delivers the same average power in comparison to dc voltage. V RMS = x V PK = V P-P / 2 57

58 4-5 58

59 4-6 Peak Envelope Power The average power of one complete RF cycle at the peak of the signal s envelope. PEP = V RMS2 / R Note: PEP is equal to the average power if an AM signal is not modulated. 59

60 Components

61 4-7 Resistor Temperature Coefficients Parasitic Inductance 61

62 4-9 Inductor Mutual Inductance Toroids 62

63 4-11 Capacitor Ceramic cost less Aluminum & Tantalum Electrolytic The electrolyte and large surface area create large capacitances in comparatively small volumes. Watch for polarity markings for correct installation. 63

64 Components in Series & Parallel 4-12 Calculating values in Series Voltages add Resistors: add values Calculating values in Parallel Currents add Resistors: Reciprocal of reciprocals Inductors: add values Capacitors: Reciprocal of reciprocals Effect on value of adding components Resistor: Increase Inductor: Increase Capacitor: Decrease Inductors: Reciprocal of reciprocals Capacitors: Add values Effect on value of adding components Resistor: Decrease Inductor: Decrease Capacitor: Increase 64

65 Components in Series & Parallel

66 What is the resistance of 4-14 in series? three 100 ohm resisters R = = 300 ohm in parallel? R = 1 / (1/ / /100) = 1/(3/100) = 100/3 = 33.3 ohms 66

67 What is the total capacitance 4-14 of three 100 uf capacitors in series? C = 1 / (1/ / /100) = 1/(3/100) = 100/3 = 33.3 uf in parallel? C = = 300 uf 67

68 What is the total inductance of a mh and 50 mh inductor in series? L = = 70 mh in parallel? L = (20 x 50) / ( ) = 1000 / 70 = mh 68

69 4-15 Transformers Mutual inductance Voltage and winding ratios 69

70 Reactance Capacitive reactance: The opposition to ac current flow from the stored energy in a capacitor is called capacitive reactance (X C ) As the frequency of the applied signal increases, X C decreases. and vice versa 70

71 Reactance 4-17 Inductive reactance is the opposition to ac current flow from the stored energy in a inductor and is denoted by X L As the frequency of the applied signal increases, X L increases and visa versa 71

72 Impedance 4-18 Impedance - opposition to current flow in an ac circuit Denoted by Z and is measured in ohms ( ) The ratio of voltage to current 72

73 Resonance 4-18 Resonance in a circuit or antenna occurs when capacitive and inductive reactance are equal In a resonant series circuit the reactances of the L and C cancel, forming a short circuit, leaving only the resistance, R, as the circuit s impedance Resonance is used in filters or tuned circuits to pass or reject specific frequencies 73

74 Impedance Matching 4-19 Maximum power transfer occurs when the source and load impedances are equal Amateur transmitting equipment is designed to have a 50 W output Most antennas are designed to have a feed point impedance of 50 W but rarely present that impedance over the whole band An impedance-matching circuit changes the variable impedance into the desired value 74

75 Impedance Matching 4-19 Most impedance matching circuits are LC circuits made up of inductors and capacitors 75

76 Impedance Matching 4-20 Special RF impedance-matching transformers are often used to equalize impedances of the source and load to maximize the transfer of power to the load Special lengths of coax can be used to match impedances 76

77 Semiconductor Components 4-20 Diodes & Rectifiers Junction diode uses PN junction to block flow of current in one direction Current flows when a positive voltage is applied from the P- type to the N-type material (forward bias) Diode forward voltage: silicon 0.7 V, germanium 0.3 V 77

78 Semiconductor Components 4-21 Diode Ratings: Peak inverse voltage (PIV) maximum reverse voltage before breakdown occurs. Average forward current (I F ) Exceeding the diode s rating will destroy the diode s internal structure due to heat. Junction capacitance (C J ) when reverse biased, layers of P- and N-type material act like plates of a small capacitor. The larger the C J the longer it takes to switch to conducting. 78

79 Diode Types 4-21 PIN diode low forward voltage drop, used for RF switching Schottky diode low junction capacitance allows high-frequency operation Varactor reverse biased acts like a variable capacitor Zener diode used as a voltage regulator 79

80 Bipolar Transistors 4-21 Bipolar junction transistors have 3 electrodes: Collector (C) Base (B) Emitter (E) Controlled by current flow between base and emitter 80

81 Bipolar Transistors 4-22 Very little base-emitter current is required for the collectoremitter current to flow Control of a larger current by a smaller current is current gain or beta ( ) 81

82 Field Effect Transistor (FET) 4-22 The FET has 3 electrodes Drain (D) Source (S) Gate (G) Controlled by voltage between gate and source. Metal-oxide-semiconductors (MOSFETs) insulate the gate with a thin layer of oxide 82

83 Transistors 4-23 Transistors high amplification makes them useful as switches for voltage and current Saturation when further increases in input result in no output change Cutoff when the input signal reduces output current to zero Saturation & cutoff states represent a digital ON/OFF switch A transistor s metal case can be connected to the chassis or heat sink by an insulator 83

84 Vacuum Tubes 4-23 All amplifying tubes have at least 3 electrodes Compared to transistors, the tube is most like the field effect transistor (FET) Vacuum tubes typically operate at hazardous voltages as high as 2000 to 3000 volts (use CAUTION!) 84

85 Vacuum Tubes 4-23 Tube terminology: Filament or heater heats the cathode to make it emit electrons Cathode source of electrons Control grid regulates electron travel between the cathode and plate Screen grid reduces grid-to-plate capacitance Suppressor grid prevents electrons from traveling from the plate to the control or screen grid Plate collects electrons 85

86 Analog Integrated Circuits (ICs) 4-24 Analog ICs or chips : Used for amplification, filtering, measurement, and power control A linear voltage regulator is used to maintain a power supply output at a constant voltage over a wide range of currents Operational amps (op amp) are used for dc and audio circuits 86

87 Digital Integrated Circuits (ICs) 4-24 Digital ICs operate with discrete values of voltage and current representing the binary numbers system values 0 and 1 Digital electronic circuits operate with only two stable states of operation, ON or OFF Digital circuits can perform computations or control functions CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductors) technology is popular because of its high speed and low power consumption 87

88 4-25 Digital Logic Basics 88

89 Digital Logic Basics 4-25 The basic building blocks of digital circuits are called gates Inversion (changing a 1 to a 0 and vice versa) OR and AND functions Inverted NOR and NAND Truth tables explain the Boolean functions implemented by the gates 89

90 Digital Logic Basics 4-26 Flip-flop has 2 stable states Sequential logic built on flip-flops feeding other flipflops (used in counters) Example: a 3-bit counter (one with 3 flip-flops) can count 2 3 = 8 different states Example: a 4-bit counter (one with 4 flip-flops) can count 2 4 = 16 different states Shift register a clocked array of circuits that passes data in steps along the array 90

91 RF Integrated Circuits 4-26 RF ICs are designed for functions commonly used for radio frequencies Low-level high-gain amplifiers Mixers Modulators and demodulators Filters MMIC (monolithic microwave integrated circuit) works through microwave frequencies 91

92 Microprocessors & Components 4-26 A microprocessor is a computer on a single Integrated Circuit Capable of performing billions of instructions per second using combinations of digital logic gates Has parallel and serial input-output ports, counters and timers Nearly all built from CMOS logic 92

93 Microprocessor Components 4-27 Memory: Volatile memory loses the data stored when power is removed Nonvolatile memory retains data permanently even when power is off Random-access memory (RAM) can be read or written to in any order Read-only memory (ROM) stores data permanently and can t be changed 93

94 Microprocessor Components 4-27 Interfaces: Serial interface transfers one bit of data in each transfer Parallel interface transfers multiple bits of data in each operation RS-232 serial interface is rapidly being replaced by USB (universal serial bus) serial interface Modern computers don t have RS-232 ports, so use the USB port and RS-232 converter to interface them to your transceiver 94

95 Microprocessor Components 4-27 Visual Interfaces: Indicator device that presents ON/OFF information (LED) Display device capable of presenting text or graphics in visual form An LED is a special diode that produces light when it is forward biased LEDs are available in several different colors, including white LEDs have replaced incandescent light bulbs because they last longer and react faster 95

96 Microprocessor Components 4-28 Liquid crystal display (LCD) created by sandwiching liquid crystal material between transparent glass panels When voltage is applied to the electrodes on the front panel, the liquid crystals twist and block the light LCDs require ambient or back lighting since the liquid crystal layer does not generate light 96

97 Rectifiers 4-28 Half-wave rectifier allows current to flow in one-half of the input ac waveform (180 ) from the transformer, as shown in A Full-wave center-trapped Rectifier two half-wave rectifiers operating on alternating half cycles, as shown in B, using the transformer center tap for the current s return path 97

98 Rectifiers 4-29 Full Wave Rectifier Circuits Advantage output is produced during entire 360 of the ac cycle Output is a series of pulses at twice the frequency of the input voltage Full-wave bridge rectifier uses a pair of diodes on alternating ac cycle halves 98

99 Rectifiers 4-29 Full-wave bridge rectifier Diodes only have to withstand the full supply output voltage Each diode carries the full load current. 99

100 Rectifiers 4-29 Peak inverse voltage in a half-wave rectifier is twice the supply output voltage Half-wave rectifier the entire load current goes through one diode 100

101 Filter Circuits 4-30 Rectifier s pulsed output is unusable as dc Filter networks made up of capacitors and inductors, smooth out the ripple Common method to smooth the ripple in a linear supply is a large electrolytic capacitor Regulation the percent variation in output voltage between no load and full load Inductor-input or choke-input uses an inductor to smooth current pulses with a capacitor so smooth voltage. 101

102 Power Supplies 4-31 Power supply safety: Fuses in the primary are used to protect against short circuits or excessive current Bleeder resistors discharge stored energy when the supply is turned off Working on power supplies wait for the bleeder resistor to discharge energy, even if it is unplugged 102

103 Power Supplies 4-31 Switching or Switchmode supplies: Transistors switch current pulses at a high frequency (20 khz or more) through a transformer and/or inductor then a capacitor filters the voltage The high frequency allows lightweight inductors and transformers to be used Linear supplies are very heavy due to their large, ironcore power transformer 103

104 Batteries 4-32 Large marine or RV storage batteries are often used as emergency backup power supplies Liquid-electrolyte or gel-electrolyte batteries are rated at 12 V but should be maintained at 13.8 V Lead-acid batteries are useful until their output drops to 10.5 V Discharging batteries past their minimum voltage will reduce the life of the battery 104

105 Batteries

106 Batteries 4-32 NiCds (or Nicads) designed to have low internal resistance to supply high discharge currents for tools and transmitters Battery self-discharge gradually reduces stored energy over time Slow by storage in a cool and dry place Freezing will damage batteries with liquid or gel electrolytes 106

107 Charging Batteries 4-33 Different types of batteries require different charging methods Use the proper type of charger to maximize the life and usefulness of the battery Never attempt to recharge a carbon-zinc, alkaline, or silver-nickel type battery (chemical reaction can not be reversed) 107

108 Alternative Power 4-33 Solar Power photovoltaic conversion of sunlight directly to electricity Solar cells are a special type of diode The forward voltage created as the electrons cross the junction is approximately 0.5 V dc (open circuit voltage) Individual solar cells can be connected in series to create higher voltages (24 cells to create 12 V) Wind generators use dc generators connected to propellers that spin them 108

109 Energy Storage 4-33 Wind and solar power require a substantial energy storage system No wind or sun means no power Excess power needs to be stored during peak periods of generation (batteries are the most common method) Diodes prevent the batteries from discharging back through the solar panels 109

110 Connectors 4-34 Keyed connectors only mate one way, reducing the possibility of damage Plugs are installed on cables Jacks are installed on equipment Adaptors make connections between different style connectors Splitters divide a signal between two connectors 110

111 Power Connectors 4-34 Anderson Powerpole connectors have become the standard for radio equipment used by ARES 111

112 Audio Connectors 4-35 Consumer electronics and Amateur Radio share many of the same connectors 112

113 Audio Connectors 4-35 Contact tip is the end of the plug The sleeve is the base of the plug The ring is a third contact between the tip and sleeve Phono plugs are often called RCA connectors (commonly used for audio signals) DIN or mini-din connectors are keyed and have up to 9 pins and are used to control multiple circuits on radio equipment 113

114 RF Connectors

115 RF Connectors 4-36 Special RF feed line connectors: UHF connectors (SO-239 & PL-259) can be used up to 150 MHz N connectors are moisture resistant and used up to 10 GHz SMA connectors are small threaded connectors designed for miniature coaxial cable and are rated up to 18 GHz Used on many hand-held radios 115

116 Data Connectors 4-36 Digital data is exchanged between the computers and amateur radios: D-type connectors are used for RS-232 (COM ports) and parallel ports D-type 9-pin connector is referred to as DB-9 or DE-9 (commonly used for serial ports) 25-pin D-type connector for parallel ports USB ports are standard for current computers 116

117 Analog & Digital Meters 4-37 Volt-ohm meter (VOM) is the simplest piece of test equipment Measures volts, current, resistance Tests continuity, diodes, transistors Two types of VOM Analog and Digital Analog meters have a moving needle and calibrated scales on the meter face Analog meters are useful for finding a peak or minimum reading, such as when adjusting a tuned circuit 117

118 Analog & Digital Meters 4-37 Digital meters (DDMs) offer significantly greater precision than analog meters Digital meters have useful features: auto-ranging to automatically select the proper display range peak hold to capture maximum values When measuring voltage, the meter should have a high input impedance to place the minimum load on the circuit being measured 118

119 Oscilloscope 4-37 The oscilloscope (or scope ) provides a visual display of voltage against time Updated rapidly enough to give a real-time picture of the signal Fast-changing complex waveforms can be measured External signals are connected to horizontal and vertical channel inputs to control the display Variable gain and update rates are available to display many types of signals. 119

120 Monitoring Oscilloscope 4-38 The transmitter s attenuated output connects to the vertical channel of the oscilloscope to monitor the signal Monitoring helps adjust keying waveforms, mic gain, and speech processing The scope shows the effects of any adjustments that might cause distortion A scope provides information that numeric meters can t measure. 120

121 Impedance & Resonance Measurement 4-38 An antenna analyzer contains a CW signal generator, frequency counter, SWR bridge, and impedance meter Connects to the antenna feed line to measure SWR using very small signals for measurements Impedance measurements show resonance Measures feed line velocity factor, electrical length, and characteristic impedance Can be affected by strong nearby signals 121

122 Field Strength & Power Meters 4-39 Field strength meters measure the electrical field of transmitted signals Field strength meters can be used during antenna and transmitter adjustments Field strength meters can be used to measure antenna radiation patterns Standing wave ratio (SWR) can be measured from forward and reflected power measurements made with a directional wattmeter 122

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