Construction Surveying and Layout

Transcription

1 Construction Surveying and Layout A Field Engineering Methods Manual Third Edition WESLEY G. CRAWFORD.CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION Creative Construction Publishing, Inc South River Road West Lafayette, Indiana

2 ~ construction surveying and layout Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 Construction Surveying PART ONE - SURVEYING FIELD PRACTICES Getting Started and Organized 1-2 Field Engineering Responsibilities 1-7 Preparing Reports and Charts 1-14 Qualified Land Surveyor 1-18 Summary 1-20 CHAPTER 2 Communication The Basics 2-2 Communicating with Signals 2-11 Stakes and Laths 2-17 Marking Line and Grade 2-25 Abbreviations and Symbols 2-30 Summary 2-35 CHAPTER 3 Fieldwork Practices Safety 3-2 Measurement Principles 3-10 Tolerances for Construction Layout 3-14 Field Notekeeping Practices 3-17 General Instrument Care 3-25 Use and Care of Hand Tools 3-33 Leveling an Instrument 3-43 Instrument Setups 3-51 Summary 3-62 IV

3 construction surveying and CHAPTER 4 Distance Measurement - Chaining Introduction 4-2 Chaining a Distance 4-7 Chaining a Traverse 4-15 Analysis of Chaining Errors 4-18 Summary 4-21 CHAPTER 5 Angle Measurement Introduction 5-2 Instruments 5-6 Horizontal Angle Measurement 5-14 Horizontal Angle Layout Vertical or Zenith Angles Summary' CHAPTER 6 Total Station Carrying Handle Horizontal Drive Introduction Measuring Basics Measuring Details Layout of a Point Trigonometric Elevations Electronic Data Collection Summary v

4 ~ construction surveying and layout CHAPTER 7 Leveling Introduction 7-2 Standard Practices 7-11 Field Notes for Leveling 7-17 Differential Leveling 7-22 Profile Leveling 7-28 Cross-Section Leveling 7-33 Grid Leveling 7-39 Transferring Elevations 7-43 Applied Leveling 7-47 Setting Grade 7-53 Summary 7-57 CHAPTER 8 Lasers Introduction 8-2 Standard Practices 8-7 Applications 8-14 Summary 8-16 CHAPTER 9 GPS Field Procedures CSo I Introduction 9-2 Standard Practices 9-7 Summary 9-16 VI

5 construction surveying and CHAPTER 10 Equipment Calibration Vertical Axis I Introduction 10-2 Testing of a Chain 10-6 Angle-Measuring Instruments Total Station Tribrach and Plummets Levels Laser Prism Pole Bubble Hand Level Summary CHAPTER 11 Office Practices PART TWO - OFFICEWORK AND CALCULATIONS Drafting 11-2 Construction Drawings 11-7 Site Plans Contours Lift Drawings Summary CHAPTER 12 Math Essentials a Review and Formulas 12-2 Units and Conversions Summary VII

6 ~ construction surveying and layout CHAPTER 13 Chain Corrections Introduction 13-2 Length Correction 13-8 Slope Correction Temperature Correction Combined Corrections Summary CHAPTER 14 Traverse Computations Introduction 14-2 Angle Adjustment 14-9 Direction Calculations Latitudes and Departures Closure and Precision Adjustments Adjusted Distances and Directions Coordinates I Examples Summary CHAPTER 15 Coordinate Geometry Introduction 15-2 Inversing 15-7 Intersections Re-Section Layout Data Areas Summary VIII

7 construction surveying and CHAPTER 16 Horizontal Curves Introduction 16-2 Formulas 16-7 Deflections and Chords Layout by Deflections Layout by Coo r di n ate s Moving Up Offset Curves Summary CHAPTER 17 Vertical Curves Introduction 17-2 Gradient Elevations 17-4 Elements and Properties 17-9 Cu rve Elevations Unequal Length Curves High and Low Points Layout Summary CHAPTER 18 Quantities Introduction Area 18-4 Average End-Area Method 18-8 G rids and Contours Method Summary IX

8 ~ construction surveying and layout CHAPTER 19 Layout Techniques - --~ - PART THREE - APPLlCA TlONS Introduction 19-2 Control 19-9 Methods Li ne Grade Vertical Alignment Sticks and Strings Summary CHAPTER 20 Construction Control Introduction 20-2 Sitework 20-4 Retaining Systems 20-8 Caissons Footings and Foundation Anchor Bolts Structural Steel Concrete and Metal Decks Block-Outs and Embeds Concrete Columns Elevator and Stair Cores Sidewalks, Curbs, and Gutters Summary x

9 ;I5~~iS:;~ON;::: Bis:;'B;;Q,6K; construction surveying and CHAPTER 21 One-Person Surveying Introduction 21-2 Distances 21-6 :: " = Line Elevations Layout Summary CHAPTER 22 Field Observations Introduction 22-2 Tech Tips 22-7 Rules of Thumb Common Mistakes APPENDICES Appendix A - Glossary 1 Appendix B - Bibliography 7 Appendix C - Additional Problems 10 Index 15 ~:;;<"~ rt,;::~ i :!~~1:.I#(9)"tuiiatelY'/llQ<lJ06kiS V~! t ~ar~!0fjy~~!lj ith9l.i~.al.icmqtpel"sons,there.. ~!~~!~tiu!mi.st(lk:~s0rtypqgl"ap~1?e~{~{! }~g~~}l!~c~e~q~d~~ti@l.i'0fthisb00k. I:m ~,~;;~~r;eth,~t!~~~ntl:lqugh.the.best.~:f~pjt.sj.~dei6~li~n~~ei lnistakesinlliis new third. ion,~ef:e\v~1i.lje,~qmeth,~tgq!tq!:vi.ti'i{g!y~l.i~().iq.tb.!6r~~~1~e.c()ij:s~uctiqn?s..,. <... site.atwww,cre~tivec()nstrrib~10~ic0...i:e\v:anup:t()~aate listirig0f~h.ekno\vnerratafor.!tl\i~ book.. On the home. web-page;c1ickbri"err:a:.i~,"thel~test list of significant eonections vvillbedisplayecl.!. " XI

10 Index 3/4/5 3/4/5 Requirements, Common Uses of the 3/4/5, Multiples of the 3/4/5, Using the 3/4/5, /4/5 Layout Square, /4/5, Abbreviations and Symbols, 2-35 Common Abbreviations, 2-31 Common Symbols, 2-34 Accuracy Standards, 7-16 Adjusted Distances and Directions, Anchor Bolts, Angle Adjustment, 14-9 Angle Measurement Horizontal Angle Layout, 5-24 Horizontal Angle Measurement, 5-14 Vertical or Zenith Angles, 5-28 With a Chain, Angles Close the Horizon, 5-17 Determine the Average Angle, 5-22 Direct and Reverse, 5-17 Double-Center, 5-17, 5-26 Measuring Traverse Angles, 5-21 Procedure for Reading Angles, 5-17 Turning an Angle, 5-18 Types of Angles, 5-3 Field Angles Measured, 5-4 Horizontal, 5-3 Vertical, 5-3 Angular Closure, 14-5 Applied Leveling, 7-47 Approximate Right Angle, Arc Length, Area by Coordinates, Area, 12-16, 18-4 Cross-Section Coordinates, 18-6 Trapezoidal Rule, 18-7 Areas, Procedure for area by coordinates, Procedure for area by geometry, Arm Signals Arm Signals for Numbers, 2-12 One-Hand Signals for Numbers, 2-13 Field Operations Signals, 2-14 Signals to crane operators, 2-16 Stakes and Laths, 2-17 Arm Signals Marking Basic Principles of Chalking Lines, 2-27 Communicating the Meaning of Marks, 2-27 Marking Line and Grade, 2-25 Principles of Marking, 2-26 As-BuiIts, Average End-Area Method, 18-10, 18-8 Azimuths, Backsight (BS), 7-3 Backsights, Baseline, Procedure for Baseline Offset, Batter Boards, Establishing Line on Batter Boards, Setting an Elevation on Batter Boards, Types of Batter Boards, Uses of Batter Boards, Bearings, Benchmark (BM), 7-3 Benchmarks, Block-Outs and Embeds, Borrow Pit, Bucking In, Procedure for Bucking In On Line, Bucking In (Elevation), 7-51 Building Benchmarks, 7-48 CAD,11-6 Caissons, Calculating Coordinates on a Traverse, Calculating Directions, Calculating L.E.O.c., Calculating Latitudes and Departures, Care of Hand Tools, 3-33 Know Your Tools, 3-34 The Importance of Maintenance, 3-34 Care of Hand Tools, 3-33 General Rules of Use, 3-34 Do Not Force Equipment Keep the Equipment Clean, 3-34 Know How to Operate the Equipment, 3-34 Parts, 3-34 Use a Protective Case, 3-34 General Surveying Equipment, 3-35 Brusl1 Clearing Equipment, 3-37 Chaining Pins, 3-36 <=:loth Tape, 3-39 INDEX - 15

11 ~ construction surveying and layout Gammon Reel, 3-36 Hammers, 3-38 Level Rods, 3-40 Plumb Bob, 3-35 Prism Poles, 3-37 Range Poles, 3-36 Rock Chisel, 3-38 Sight Level, 3-35 Steel Chain, 3-38 Care of Hand Tools, 3-33 Instrument Handling Guidelines, 3-42 Carpenter's Level, Centerlines, 20-9 Chain Corrections Combined Corrections, Length Correction, 13-8 Measuring Conditions, 13-3 Slope Correction, Temperature Correction, Chalk Lines and Plumb Lines, Chalk Lines, 21-4 Change Technology, 19-7 Check Equipment, Checking Grade, Checking Layout, 19-7 Checking Plumb, Chord, Chord Calculations, Long Chords, Short Chords, Climatize, 3-29, 8-10 Closed Loop, 7-3 Closed Traverse, 14-3 Closure and Precision, Color Code, 20-5 Color Coding, 22-8 Column Dowel Layout, Combined Corrections, Common Mistakes, Communicating with Signals, 2-11 See Arm Signals Communication Dealing with People, 2-8 Giving and Receiving Criticism, 2-9 Meetings, 2-7 Radio Communication, 2-6 Recognizing Communication Barriers, 2-10 Structuring Written Documents, 2-7 Telephone Communication, 2-5 Writing an Effective Letter, 2-6 Communicating on Stakes, 2-20 Compass rule, Concrete and Metal Decks, Concrete Columns, 20-29, Construction Control, 20-1 Construction Drawings, 11-7 Drawing Types, 11-9 Reading Drawings, Site Plans, Standard Practices, 11-8 Construction Staking, 2-18 Cut or Fill Stakes, 2-21 Principles of Communicating on Stakes, 2-20 Color Code the Flagging, 2-19 Face Stakes in the Correct Direction, 2-18 Offset Stakes for Protection, 2-18 Use the Proper Size Stake, 2-18 Setting Stakes on the Site, 2-21 Types of Construction Stakes Control, 2-24 Curb and Gutter, 2-23 Fine Grade, 2-22 Minor Structures, 2-24 Pipe, 2-23 Rough Grade, 2-22 Site-Clearing Limits, 2-22 Slope, 2-23 Consult with Subcontractors, 22-6 Contour Areas Method, Contour Characteristics, Contour Intervals, Contours, Contouring Rules, Defined, Drawing Contours, Representations by Contours, Depression, Highway Cut, Highway Fill, Hill, Control, 19-9 Coordinate Geometry, 15-1 Coordinates, Coordinates in Construction, 15-5 Setup of a Coordinate System, 15-6 Where to Use Coordinates, 15-4 Correction Calculations, 13-4 Cross-Section Coordinates, 18-6 Cross-Section Leveling, 7-33 GPS Cross-Sectioning, 7-37 Cross-Section Interval, 7-34 Total Station Cross-Sectioning, 7-37 Curb and Gutter Construction, Curve Layout Data, DD to DMS, Data Sheet, Deflection Angles, 14-5 Deflection Increment, Deflection per Foot of Arc, Deflection, INDEX

12 Deflections and Chords, Degree of Curve, 16-6 Degree of Curve, Da, Departure, Departure Correction, Differential Leveling, 7-22 Digitizer, 18-5 Direct-Elevation Rod, 8-12 Direction Calculations, Comparison Between Azimuths and Bearings, Obtaining a Back Azimuth, Chaining Analysis of Chaining Errors, 4-18 Analysis of Common Chaining Errors, 4-20 Breaking Chain, 4-5 Chaining a Distance, 4-7 Chaining a Traverse, 4-15 Chaining Basics, 4-3 Reading a Metric Chain, 4-4 Reading an Engineering Chain, 4-4 Chaining Equipment, 4-3 Properly Care for Chains & Chaining Equipment, 4-6 Sources of Error in Chaining, 4-19 Instrumental, 4-19 Natural, 4-19 Personal, 4-19 Traverse Chaining Field Notes, 4-17 Types of Errors, Random, 4-19 Systematic, 4-19 ~MS to DD, Double-Centering, Double-Check Grade Sheets, 7-55 Drafting, 11-2 CAD, 11-6 Equipment, 11-3 Graphical Scale, Legend of Symbols, Principles of Lettering, 11-5 Techniques, 11-4 Earthwork, 20-6 Electronic Data Collection, 6-40 Electronic Instruments, 3-29 Elevation, 7-3 Elevations, 8-15 Elevator and Stair Cores, Engineering Layout, 1-9 Equipment Equipment Checklists, 1-4 Personal Equipment, 1-3 Equipment Calibration Angle-Measuring Instruments, Basic Principles, 10-3 Development of a Test Area, 10-4 Hand Level, Procedure for Calibration of a Hand Level, Laser, Procedure for laser calibration, Laser Plummets, Levels, Levels, Quick-Peg by One Person, Review of the Geometry of a Level, The Principal Lines on a Level, Two-Peg or Quick-Peg Test, Optical Plummet in a Tribrach, Prism Pole Bubble, Using a Door Frame, Using a Wall Bracket, Using Tables, Testing of a Chain, 10-6 Testing Requirements, 10-4 The Circular Level, Total Station, Total Station, Horizontal Collimation, Vertical Index Error, Tribrach and Plummets, Laser Plummets, Review of Instrument Geometry, The Circular Level, The Optical Plummet, Principle Lines Angle-Measuring Instr., Establishing a Line, Establishing Line on Batter Boards, Existing Objects as Benchmarks, 7-48 External E, Field Book, 1-15 Field Engineering Field Duties, 1-9 Getting Started and Organized, 1-2 Office Duties, 1-11 Responsibilities, 1-7 Success Characteristics, 1-8 Field Notekeeping, 3-17 Basic Practices, 3-18 Keep Field Book Safe, 3-18 Leave No Room for Interpretation, 3-18 Make References, 3-18 Record Data Exactly, 3-18 Use a Hard Pencil, 3-18 Do Not Erase, 3-21 Guidelines, 3-21 Layout, 3-18 Methods of Notekeeping, 3-23 Sample Combination, 3-24 Sample Description, 3-24 INDEX -17

13 ~ construction surveying and layout Sample Sketch, 3-23 Sample Tabulation, 3-23 Record Everything, 3-21 Use Standard Drafting Techniques, 3-22 Use Standard Lettering Techniques, 3-22 Field Notes Arithmetic Check, 7-20 Field Note Samples Field Notes for Profile Leveling, 7-31 Field Notes for Referencing, Field Notes for Bucking In, Field Notes for Chaining, 4-14 Field :Notes for Cross-Sectioning, 7-38 Field Notes for Differential Leveling, 7-27 Field Notes for Distances Between Control Points, 6-23 Field Notes for Grid Leveling, 7-42 Field Notes for Horizontal Control Layout, 6-15 Field Notes for Level Loop, 7-19 Field Notes for Leveling, 7-17 Field Notes for Measuring Traverse Angles with a Chain, Field Notes for Measuring Traverse Angles, 5-23 Field Notes for Radial Layout, 6-32 Field Notes for Slope Stake, Field Notes for Transferring an Elevation Up a Structure, 7-46 Field Notes for Traverse Chaining, 4-17 Field Notes for Traverse Computation, Field Notes for Traverse Data, 14-6 Field Notes for Trigonometric Leveling, 6-39 Rules Related to Field Book Use, 7-21 Field observations, 22-1 Field Work Tips, 22-8 Footings and Foundation, Foresight (FS), 7-3 Formulas, 12-2 Foundations, 8-15 GPS, 19-46, 21-5 Calibrate, 9-12 GPS equipment care, 9-12 GPS Project Planning, 9-9 Iobsite Applications, 9-5 Recording log sheets, 9-14 Satellites, 9-11 Standard Practices, 9-7 Advantages, 9-4 Disadvantages, 9-4 Gradient or Grade, 17-5 Calculating Elevations on the~ Gradient, 17-7 Gradient Elevations, 17-4 Negative Gradient, 17-6 Positive Gradient, 17-5 Zero Gradient, 17-6 Grading with a Laser, Grid Leveling, 7-39 Grids and Contours Method, Height of Instrument (ID), 7-3 ID From Two BM's, 7-54 High and Low Points of a Vertical Curve, Equation for the High or Low Point, Procedure for Calculating a Low Point, Horizontal Control, 19-14,20-3 Horizontal Control and Layout, Horizontal Curves Formulas, 16-7 Layout by Coordinates, Procedure for Coordinate Calculations, Procedure for Radial Lines, Layout by Deflections, Computing Deflections and Chords, Curve Layout Data, Deflection Increment, Procedure for Long Chord Layout, Procedure for Short Chord Layout, Parts of a Horizontal Curve, 16-4 Arc Length, Deflections and Chords, Degree of Curve, 16-6 External E, Length of Curve L, 16-9 Long chord LC, 16-8 Middle Ordinate MO, Station Interval, Stationing, Tangent T, 16-8 Types of Curves, 16-3 Broken-Back, 16-4 Compound Curve, 16-3 Reverse Curve, 16-3 Simple Curve, 16-3 Spiral Curves, 16-4 Index Contour, Instrument Angle Error, Instrument Care, 3-25 General Instrument Care and Use, 3-27 Attach Instrument Snugly to the Tripod, 3-27 Do Not Touch the Lenses, 3-27 Establish a Wide Foundation, 3-28 Grasp the Instrument Firmly, 3-27 Keep Equipment Dry, 3-28 Keep it Clean, 3-28 Never Leave the Instrument Unattended, 3-28 Silicone Lubricant, 3-31 Transporting Surveying Instruments, 3-26 Carrying the Instrument, 3-27 Keep an Empty Case Closed, 3-27 Transport the Instrument in its Case, INDEX

14 Instrument Setups, 3-51 Procedure for Setup with a Plumb Bob, 3-52 Procedure for Setup with an Optical Plummet, 3-54 Procedure for Setup with a Laser Plummet, 3-57 Instruments Digital Theodolite, 5-9 For Working Alone, 21-5 Geometry of Angle-Measuring Instruments, 5-10 Optical Theodolite, 5-8 Components of Theodolites & Total Stations, 5-12 Total Stations, 5-10 Transit, 5-7 Angle-turning Clamping (Motion) Systems, 5-12 Components of a Transit, 5-11 Use of an Instrument, Interior Angles, 14-4 Interpolation, Procedure for Interpolation, Intersections, 15-13, Direction / Direction Intersection, Distance / Direction Intersection, Distance / Distance Intersection, Procedure for Using Intersecting Lines, Inversing, 15-7 Inverse Direction, 15-8 Inverse Distance, Land Surveyor Lasers, 21-5 Applications, 8-14 Benefits of using a Laser, 8-3 Calibration, 8-13 Classes of Lasers, 8-5 Fixed,8-5 Rotating, 8-5 Utility, 8-6 Standard Practices, 8-7 Types of Lasers, 8-4 Electronic Level, 8-4 Visible Light Laser, 8-4 Use of the, Latitude Correction, Latitude, Latitudes and Departures, Laying Out Distances, 21-9 Layout, Baseline, Change Technology, 19-7 Checking Layout, 19-7 Intersections, Methods, Radial Layout, Rules of Layout, 19-5 Select the Layout Method, Schedule, 1-6 Layout Data, Procedure to Calculate Layout Data, Legend of Symbols, Length Correction, 13-8 Length of Curve L, 16-9 Level Rods, 7-8 Rod Levels, 7-10 Rod Use, 7-14 Leveling Differential Leveling Basics, 7-3 Leveling an Instrument, 3-43 Procedure for Electronic Leveling System, 3-49 Procedure for Four-Screw Leveling Head, 3-45 Procedure for Three-Screw LeveJing Head, 3-47 Leveling Instruments, 7-6 Automatic Levels, 7-7 Digital Levels, 7-8 Dumpy Levels, 7-6 Hand Levels, 7-7 Leveling Process Bala.'1ce Backsights and Foresights, 7-16 Carrying a Level, 7-13 Check the Compensator, 7-13 Close the Loop, 7-16 Focusing, 7-13 Setting up, 7-12 Standard Practices, 7-11 Lift Drawings, Basics, Example Lift Drawings, Lift Drawing Checklist, Lift-Drawing Preparation and Use, Line, Linear Error of Closure, Location of Embeds, Block-Outs, etc., Long BS and Short FS, Long chord, LC, 16-8 Long Chords, Math Review Algebra, 12-3 Formulas, 12-2 Plane Geometry, 12-4 Trigonometry, 12-5 Measurement Principles, 3-10 Accuracy vs. Precision, 3-13 Accuracy, 3-13 Errors, 3-11 Mistakes vs. Errors, 3-11 Mistakes, 3-11 Precision, 3-13 Measuring a Distance, 21-9 Middle Ordinate MO, INDEX - 19

15 ~ construction surveying and layout Monumentation, Moving Up on a Horizontal Curve, Procedure for Moving Up, Natural Backsights, Natural or Quick Foresights, Notekeeping for Three-Wire Leveling, 7-50 Obtaining a Back Azimuth, Office Work Tips, Offset Curves, Offset Chord Equations, Offset Curve Layout Data, Procedure for Offset Chord Layout, Offset, 20-9, One-Person Surveying, /4/5, Approximate Right Angle, Distances, 21-6 Chaining, 21-9 Elevations, Layout, Line, Establishing a Line, Obtaining a Backsight, One-Person 90's, Procedure for One-Person Radial, Open Traverse, 14-3 Pacing, 21-7 Determine Pace Length, 21-8 Pegging a Level, Permanent Backsight, Pipelines, Planimeter, 18-5 Planning, 1-3 Plumb Bob Plumbing with, Use of the, Plumbing and Erection, Plumbing the Column, Plumbing with an Instrument, Pocket Laser, Precision Calculation and Analysis, Preserving Points, Primary Control, Primary, Secondary, Working, Prism Pole Bubble, Procedures for Adjusting Angles, Area by Coordinates, Area by Geometry, Baseline Offset, Bucking In On Line, Calculate Layout Data, Calculating Directions, Calculating L.E.O.C., Calculating Low Point, Calculating Unequal Length Curve, Calibration, 10-8 Computing Deflections and Chords, Coordinate Calculations, Cross-Sectioning, 7-35 Differential Leveling, 7-23 Direct and Reverse Angles, 5-18 Direct-Elevation Rod, 8-12 Double-Centering, Electronic Leveling System Establishing a Perpendicular Line, Four-Screw Leveling Head, 3-45 Grid Leveling, 7-40 Intersecting Lines, Laying Out and Staking a Vertical Curve, Laying-Out a Point with a Total Station, 6-25 Layout Data, Layout of an Angle, 5-26 Long Chord Layout, Measuring a Distance with a Chain, 4-8 Measuring Distance & Angle with Total Station, 6-12 Measuring with a Total Station, 6-17 Moving Up On a Horizontal Curve, Offset Curve Layout, One-Person Radial, Profile Leveling, 7-29 Quick-Peg, Radial Lines, Setting a Highway Slope Stake, Setting Grade, 7-55 Setup with a Laser Plummet, 3-57 Setup with a Plumb Bob, 3-52 Setup with an Optical Plummet, 3-54 Short Chord Layout, Three-Screw Leveling Head, 3-47 Transferring Elevations, 7-44 Traverse Computations, 14-7 Trigonometric Leveling, 6-36 Using a Door Frame, Using a Wall Bracket, Using Intersecting Lines, Using Tables, Wingding Right Angle, Zenith Angle Measurement, 5-30 Professional Surveyor, Profile Leveling, 7-28 Project Documentation, 1-11 Pythagorean Theorem, INDEX

16 Quality Control, 1-11 Quantities Determining Area, 18-5 Geometric Formula, 18-5 Radial Layout, Rectangular Coordinate System, 15-3 Reference to Primary Control, 20-9 Referencing, Re-Section, Angle Re-Section, Distance Re-Section, Retaining Systems, 20-8 Review Tolerances, 22-5 Roadways, Robotic Total Station, 21-5 Rules of Layout, 19-5 Rules of Thumb, Safety Construction-Site Hazards, 3-8 Crew Protective Equipment, 3-4 Hand Tool Hazards, 3-5 Highway hazards, 3-7 Natural Hazards, 3-6 Personal Protective Equipment, 3-3 Planning for Safety, 1-12 Safety is for life!, 1-12 Safety, 20-5 Sample Site Plans, Satellites, 9-11 Signal Reception, 9-12 Schedule, 22-6 Scheduling Daily Scheduling, 1-5 Maintaining the Schedule, 1-13 Sample Layout Schedule, 1-6 Secondary Control, Select the Layout Method, Setting a Backsight, Setting a Slope Stake, Setting an Elevation on Batter Boards, Setting Benchmarks, 7-48 Setting Grade, 7-53 Setup of a Coordinate System, 15-6 Short Chords, Sidewalk Construction, Sidewalks, Curbs, and Gutters, Significant Figures, 12-3 Site Plans, Information on Site Plans, Description of Benchmarks, Description of Monuments, Road Names, Sitework, 8-15, 20-4 Slope, 17-5 Slope Correction, Slope Staking, Building Site, Highway Project, Setting a Highway Slope Stake, Terms and Definitions, Software and Computers, 1-4 Stakes, 22-8 Staking, 20-7 Stationing, Station Interval, Sticks and Strings, Story Poles, String Lines, Characteristics, Fastening Techniques, Principles and Applications, Types of stringlines, Structural Steel, Structures, 8-15 Symbols See Abbreviations and Symbols Tangent T, 16-8 Tape and Tie Wire, 21-5 Targets, Tech Tips, 22-7 Temperature Correction, Templates, Tension and Sag, 13-6 The Theory of Differential Leveling, 7-4 Three-Wire Leveling, 7-49 Title Block, Tolerances, 20-19, Common Tolerances for Construction Layout, 3-15 Total Station Layout of a Point, 6-24 Measuring Basics, 6-11 Measuring Details, 6-16 Procedure for Measuring with a Total Station, 6-17 Standard Practices, 6-7 Trigonometric Elevations, 6-33 Types of Total Stations, 6-5 Basic Total Stations, 6-6 Full-Featured Total Stations, 6-6 Reflectorless Total Stations, 6-6 Robotic or Automatic Tracking Total Stations, 6-6 Transferring Elevations, 7-43 Trapezoidal Rule, 18-7 Traverse Accuracy Standards, Traverse Adjustments, Compass Rule, Departure Correction, Latitude Correction, Traverse Accuracy Standards, INDEX - 21

17 ~ construction surveying and layout Traverse Analysis, Traverse Angles, 14-4 Adjustment Options, Angle Adjustment, 14-9 Angular Closure, 14-5 Deflection Angles, 14-5 Interior Angles, 14-4 When to Adjust Angles, Traverse Computation Sheet, Traverse Computations Closed Traverse, 14-3 Open Traverse, 14-3 Traverses, 14-3 Procedure for Traverse Computations, 14-7 Trigonometric Leveling, 6-36 Tripods and Bipods, 21-4 Tripods, 3-29 Position Tripod Legs Properly, 3-30 Keep it Horizontal, 3-30 Keep it Tight, 3-30 Tripods, 3-29 Ensure a Solid Setup, 3-30 Check all Screws and Bolts, 3-31 Maintain Proper Tension, 3-31 Secure Adjustable Legs, 3-31 Tripods, 3-29 Transport Carefully, 3-31 Turnbuckles and Cables, Tumbuckles, 21-3 Turning Point (TP), 7-3, 7-14 Turning Point Pin, 7-15 Unequal Length Vertical Curves, Procedure for Calculating an Unequal Length Curve, Units and Conversions, DD to DMS, DMS to DD, Feet and Inches to Feet, Tenths, and Hundredths, Feet to Meters, Feet, Tenths, and Hundredths to Feet and Inches, Meters to Feet, Units of Length, Utilities, 20-5 Utility Laser, Vertical Alignment, Vertical Control, 19-15,20-3 Vertical Curves Calculation of the Gradient from PVI to PVI, 17-6 Definitions, 17-5 Equations of the Vertical Curve, Gradient or Grade, 17-5 Laying Out and Staking Vertical Curve, Parts of the Vertical Curve, Point of Vertical Intersection, 17-6 Properties of the Vertical Curve, Crest Curve, Sag Curve, Sy=etry, Vertical Curve Layout, Vertical, 8-15 Vicinity Map, Volume, Volumes Average End-Area Method, 18-8 Borrow Pit, Contour Areas Method, Grids and Contours Method, Working Control, Working-Alone Tools, 21-3 Carpenter's Tools, 21-3 GPS,21-5 Instruments for Working Alone, 21-5 Lasers, 21-5 Robotic Total Station, 21-5 Sticks and Strings, 21-4 Tape and Tie Wire, 21-5 Tripods and Bipods, 21-4 Zenith Plummet, Vertical Alignment, Methods, Carpenter's Level, Plumb Bobs, Pocket Laser, TransitlTheodolitelTotal Station, Utility Laser, Zenith Plu=et, INDEX