Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution ( )

Transcription

1 Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution ( ) A. The Industrial Revolution in Britain The prosperity of the Victorian age was built on a period of rapid economic growth that had its roots in the Industrial Revolution. Workshop of the world A representation of the Great Exhibition of 1851 held at the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London When Queen Victoria opened the Great Exhibition on 1 st May 1851, her country was the world's leading industrial power, producing more than half its iron, coal and cotton cloth. The Crystal Palace itself was a triumph of pre-fabricated mass production in iron and glass. Its contents were intended to celebrate material progress and peaceful international competition. They ranged from massive steam hammers and locomotives to the exquisite artistry of the handicraft trades - not to mention a host of ingenious gadgets and ornaments of domestic use. All the world displayed its wares, but the majority were British. This dominance was both novel and brief. It was only half a century earlier that Britain had taken European economic and political leadership from France, at a time when Europe itself lagged far behind Asia in manufacturing output. By 1901, however, the world's industrial powerhouse was the USA, and Germany was challenging Britain for second place. But no Mr. S. Sciberras 1

2 country, even then, was as specialised as Britain in manufacturing: in 1901 under 10% of its labour force worked in agriculture and over 75% of its wheat was imported (mostly from the USA and Russia). Food and industrial raw materials, sourced from around the world, were paid for by exports of manufactures and, increasingly, services such as shipping, insurance and banking and income from overseas investment. Nor was any other country so urbanised: already in 1851 half the population inhabited a town or city; by 1901 three-quarters did so. Yet even in 1851 only a minority of workers was employed in 'modern' industry (engineering, chemicals and factory-based textiles). They were largely concentrated into a few regions in the English north and Midlands, South Wales and the central belt of Scotland - where industrialisation was evident by Power loom weaving, Lancashire, 1835 Britain's population trebles The most visible sign of economic growth was the steady increase in Britain's population. Since the Romans it had fluctuated between two and six million, but from 1750 it grew exponentially, nearly trebling in a century to reach 21 million by This increased to 37 million by Simultaneously, if at first very slowly, the country was getting richer. During the 18 th century much of this wealth was channelled into fighting expensive wars, mostly against the French. Victoria's reign, however, saw a marked improvement in the standard of living of working people: a greater number people were living longer, more comfortable lives. Since the 1820s British writers and politicians had talked of living in a 'machine age'. They did so with excitement and pride, but also with a high degree of anxiety. The material prosperity stemming from uncontrolled industrial and urban development came at a high environmental and social cost, causing urban squalor, despoiled landscapes, dislocated communities and jeopardised livelihoods. Furnaces and forges blackened buildings, industrial chemicals and sewage killed off rivers, and roads and railways cut through fields and ancient monuments. People either emigrated far from friends and family (millions of them overseas), submitted to the factory's unaccustomed routine and irritating discipline, or suffered the de- Mr. S. Sciberras 2

3 skilling of their trade. Not even the skilled elite of the working class was immune from the insecurity of unemployment, illness and old age. In the late 18 th century, many thousands of women throughout rural Britain saw their spinning wheels become redundant and their jobs disappear into the factories. A generation later, hand-weavers fought a long, impoverishing battle against the power loom. Underemployed agricultural labourers in southeast England scraped a bare living, subsidised by poor relief. Catastrophically, in a million of Victoria's Irish subjects died (and another million emigrated) when blight repeatedly destroyed the potato crop and, largely through a misplaced faith in the free market, insufficient aid was provided. Industrialisation offered neither universal nor immediate gains. Britain's industrial evolution Since Arnold Toynbee coined the phrase 'Industrial Revolution' in 1882, most economic historians have emphasised the rapidity of British industrialisation during the period Currently, however, many argue that industrialisation took centuries, rather than decades, and comprised a complex web of changes. Its roots stretched back into the 17 th century, or even earlier. Of particular Machinery for a crushing mill significance were the establishment of new, longdistance trading links and technological and organisational changes in both agriculture and industry. Mr. S. Sciberras 3

4 Even in 1700, however, it was not obvious that Britain would lead the way: its technology had long lagged behind the Continent's and its manufacturers consequently had problems expanding into European markets - woollen cloth comprised the only significant export. In response, Britons had turned westwards to exploit the untapped resources of the New World through settlement and trade, and downwards, mining coal to develop a new source of energy to power their industry. They had also tolerated the immigration of European artisans, including many Protestant Diving dress invented and refugees, who introduced their superior skills and manufacturing manufactured in Britain techniques. By 1700, however, the flow was starting to change direction: continental manufacturers were attracting British workmen and Britons were acquiring a reputation for inventiveness! Britain was unusual in its relatively small agricultural sector: by 1800 perhaps as few as three out of five workers were full-time farmers, when on the continent four out of five was the more common ratio. The remainder worked full- or part-time in manufacturing or services. Manufacturing was to be found everywhere, from the capital cities of London and Edinburgh to provincial ports such as Glasgow and Bristol and expanding villages such as Birmingham and Manchester. In innumerable rural cottages spinning wheels whirled, looms rattled, hammers thumped and needles flew to produce textiles, metalwares, haberdashery, stockings, and leather goods, destined for increasingly distant markets in Britain and abroad. Only from the last quarter of the 18 th century was textile production centralised in factories (first spinning, later weaving). These were mostly small, rural and water-powered, and their workers, mostly young and female, numbered tens, not hundreds. Coal-burning steam engines gradually liberated the mechanised textile industry from scarce and remote riverside sites and by the 1830s production was largely based in urban centres near the coalfields of Lancashire and Yorkshire where labour was also cheaper. Development of overseas trade Closely related to this expansion of manufacturing, overseas trade grew in importance: during the 18 th century the proportion of industrial output exported rose from a quarter to a third and multiplied eight times in value. Textiles still predominated but cotton replaced wool and export cargoes became much more varied. The biggest change was in their destination: Mr. S. Sciberras 4

5 America became Britain's biggest market. Scarcely interrupted by the War of Independence ( ), in 1800 nearly 60 per cent of Britain's exports crossed the Atlantic (a proportion that declined as the USA industrialised and British trade and empire turned eastward). The other major cargo was human: British merchants were responsible for shipping over three million slaves (half the total) from Africa to the slave plantations of the Caribbean and southern USA, before their trade's abolition by parliament in Driving this Atlantic trade was British demand for plantation produce: industrial raw materials, such as cotton and dyestuffs, and exotic groceries, in particular sugar. Sweettoothed Britons consumed 20 pounds of sugar per head by five times as much as a century before - and most of it in their tea, another exotic import, from Asia. Underpinning the trade was Europe's largest and most expensive Navy, keeping the sea lanes open, suppressing pirates and, in frequent wars, stripping the French of their Caribbean colonies. The Royal Navy was, by far, Britain's biggest enterprise and investment, uniquely responsible for the huge rise in government spending during the 18 th century. Tea-swilling, cotton-clad Britons could scarcely complain of the import duties they had to pay to help maintain it. Sugar was, however, more than a morale-booster for British workers; it contributed important calories to a diet which domestic agriculture was struggling to supply. In 1800 imports of staple foods, such as grain, butter and meat, were still small in comparison with a century later, but vital nonetheless. Ireland was Britain's biggest single supplier. This is not to underestimate the achievement of British farmers in largely feeding the fast-growing population. During the 18 th century they brought 50% more land under cultivation and increased yields per hectare by the application of new techniques that allowed more animals to be raised and thereby improved the fertility of the soil. At the same time, less labour per hectare was required, owing to the increasing size of farms and the resultant economies of scale. In industrial regions redundant workers were snapped up, elsewhere they languished, rarely employed outside harvest time. New technology Already in the 16 th century agriculture's demand for more land was putting pressure on Britain's depleted woodlands. The rising price of wood as an industrial fuel made coal, with which Britain was plentifully supplied, an increasingly attractive option. Londoners had long been burning coal at home - a large coastal fleet shipped it down from the mines of Tyneside. Mr. S. Sciberras 5

6 Extending its use into industry, however, necessitated the containment of harmful fumes that contaminated the raw materials. The salt, sugar and soap industries found their technical solutions quickly: in the 17 th century glass makers and non-ferrous metal refiners modified their equipment to burn coal, but iron makers suffered repeated disappointment. Only in 1709 did Abraham Darby succeed in smelting pig iron for casting by first decarburising the coal to produce coke. But further processing was required to produce iron for the larger wrought-iron industry; this finally became economical as the price of coal fell significantly against that of charcoal after Henry Cort's puddling and rolling process (patented ) allowed both the complete replacement of charcoal and massive economies of scale: cheap iron, made with coal, turned Britain from a net importer into the world's major exporter. It was also the expanding mining sector that prompted the invention of the steam engine and the development of new forms of transport. As Cornwall's tin miners and Tyneside's coal miners dug deeper, the biggest problem they faced was flooding. Experimental drainage devices proliferated, including Thomas Savery's steam-powered 'miner's friend' in the 1690s. But it was the 'atmospheric engine', invented around 1710 by Thomas Newcomen, a Devon blacksmith that pumped most effectively. Sixty years later, James Watt significantly improved the Newcomen engine's fuel efficiency by adding the separate condenser, and adapted it to rotative motion to drive textile machinery. Heat energy from coal had thus been made available as mechanical energy to supplement horse, water and wind power. Railways begin to gather steam The need to transport coal cheaply stimulated the development of the canal system. The Duke of Bridgewater showed the way in 1759, when he commissioned James Brindley to construct a canal into Manchester from the entrance to his coal mines. Already the rival railway network was in Stephenson's locomotive, 'The Rocket' embryo form on the coalfields. Wagonways were used above and below ground where open wagons powered by human, horse, or gravity, moved the coal along wooden rails. It was but a short step to steam-powered locomotives moving coal along iron rails and no coincidence that George Stephenson began his career in the mines of Tyneside. Mr. S. Sciberras 6

7 Industrialisation was such a wide-ranging phenomenon, involving every aspect of the economy and society, that there will always be scope for debate about its timing and speed, causes and consequences. The roots of change ran deep into the past, but from the final quarter of the 18th century industrialisation gathered pace. At first slow and patchy, by the time Victoria came to the throne in 1837, it had left few lives and few institutions unaltered. b. The process of industrialization in other countries The Industrial Revolution in Belgium Belgium was the first Continental European country to experience a rapid and early industrial revolution. Like its British equivalent, the Belgian Industrial Revolution was centred around iron, coal and textiles. Unlike Britain, Belgium did not have a great merchant fleet and did not control much of the world s commerce. However, like Britain, Belgium possessed all the raw materials necessary for the development of extensive industry: wool, linen, cotton, iron, water and lumber. Apart from Belgium, in the period from 1760 to 1830, the Industrial Revolution was largely confined to Britain which forbade the exportation of machinery, skilled workers and manufacturing techniques. However, British monopoly could not last forever, especially since some British saw profitable industrial opportunities abroad, and Continental businessmen sought to attract the British know-how to their country. Institutional and political changes interacted with the Industrial Revolution in Belgium. The French armies required supplies which the Belgian factories produced. During the Napoleonic period, wool became very important on the Continent because of the interruption of supply of raw cotton from abroad and the sharp increase in the military demand for woollen cloth. Trade in both cloth and weapons had lasting effects on the Belgian economy. Like all Western Europe, Belgium profited by improvements in transportation as well. This was a period of active road-building and canal construction and faster, more spacious vehicles. To some extent the two went together: as roads improved, it was possible to shift from pack animals (the main method of transportation in most areas of Europe) to wagons, while waterways of greater depth permitted the use of steamboats and barges. Mr. S. Sciberras 7

8 At the end of the 18 th century, domestically-woven cotton replaced imported wool and coal replaced wood as the main source of industrial fuel. The continental countries under French control either had little coal or it had not been discovered. Also, more often than not, the coal was of the wrong kind for industrial use. Only in England and Belgium was known to be a substantial amount of accessible and usable coal. The Belgians with their abundant coal deposits and long mining experience became the first on the continent to shift to mineral fuel. In 1799, William Cockerill ( ), a British inventor and manufacturer, was brought to Verviers, to build the first wool-carding and wool-spinning machines on the continent. Wool manufacture was then concentrated around Verviers, a vigorous town, well able to compete in distant markets and be alert to changes in technology and fashion. Verviers had prospered enormously under Napoleon thanks to the growth of the market and the heavy government demand for woollen cloth. In 1807, with his two sons, Cockerill opened factories in Liege for the construction of spinning and weaving machines, thus producing an industry that previously had been a British monopoly. Demands came from all over Europe and he amassed a large fortune. Whereas in Britain, use of the new machines for cotton spread far more rapidly than for wool, on the continent, the interruption of the supply of raw cotton during the Napoleonic period and the sharp increase in the military demands for woollen cloth temporarily reversed that order. It had been the clothiers of Verviers who had brought John Cockerill to the Low Counties to build spinning machinery; and it was the wool manufactures of France, Spain and Germany who bought the bulk of the equipment produced by Cockerill and his rivals. It was not enough to bring techniques over from Britain. Industry needed an open business community moving ahead in its own right and exploiting its resources. Much of the interest in industrial development was part of a general process of growth and accumulation of capital, as Belgian businesses followed the British example. The Industrial Revolution in Belgium, the first on the Continent, was boosted by the needs for a foreign absolutist ruler, Napoleon I (Bonaparte). Under France, Belgium became a modern industrial nation in which an active industrialist group could develop. Mr. S. Sciberras 8

9 The Industrial Revolution in France France was the second European country (after Belgium) to undergo the industrial revolution which had began in Britain. The transformation of France into a modern industrial state was going on rapidly in the reign of Louis Philippe. Production of all important materials such as coal, iron, cotton and woollen cloth and silk rose steeply. The wealthy investors prospered. Money-making was a safe business under the peaceful and cautious government of Louis Philippe. But there was another side to this economic development. By 1846, the town workers in France numbered about 9 million in a total population of 35 million. The workers in the factories and mines were becoming an increasingly large proportion of the population. The wealth earned by the middle class was very much the result of the efforts of the working population, but the conditions of the workers was terrible. Young children aged five worked for sixteen hours a day, accidents in the mines due to bad ventilation became increasingly common, and the workers were housed in filthy cellars. It was common, in such large cities such as Marseilles and Lyons, for a whole family to live in one room. No wonder, then, that half the children of the working class died before they were fifteen months old. In France at the time it was commonplace to compare favourably the conditions of Negroes in the West Indies with those of the French workers, who were referred to as the white negroes. It is true that when entirely new factories were built and new settlements were established, the employers made some efforts to provide new houses at moderate rates, but in general the factory system was adopted in crowded towns where the old domestic system of production already existed, and old, unsatisfactory buildings were used for new and dangerous machinery, and well as to provide dwellings for the workers. These conditions were particularly bad in the old cities of Lyons, Marseilles, Paris, Lille, Rouen and Mulhausen. The Industrial Revolution in Germany Germany traditionally had an economically differentiated landscape. The west and southwest was more urbanised; here both the traditional industry and agriculture were more specialised and developed than in the territories further east where agriculture was based on large, mostly feudal estates. Feudal estates had existed in the west too, but many had become bankrupt in the late years of the 18 th century. Germany's many castle ruins for the larger part were ruins because they were given up, and their maintenance was neglected. Mr. S. Sciberras 9

10 The urban economy of western Germany for centuries had been closely linked to that of the Netherlands, England and France. Changes in technology in these countries were perceived earlier and with more interest in cities such as Hamburg, Frankfurt and Cologne as in Berlin and Vienna. Heinrich Heine described a journey he made through North Western Germany in the 1840 s, with vivid accounts of the modern industry along the Wupper and Ruhr rivers. Alfred Krupp adopted modern English technology in his steel mills in Essen (although he did not have access to the latest know-how, and for many years later, German steel was inferior in quality. In order to mark German imports (as inferior), England demanded them to be branded MADE IN GERMANY). The establishment of a network of railway lines in the 1830 s till 1850 s resulted in a much increased demand of coal and steel. Thus regions with coal fields, such as the Ruhrgebiet, the Saar and Upper Silesia, all located in Prussia, quickly transformed from agricultural into industrial regions, attracting workers from agricultural regions. Saxony and Germany's southwest - Baden and Wuerttemberg became centres of machine industry. Other urban centres - Hamburg, Berlin, Nurermburg - expanded as industrial centres. Many cities dismantled their ancient city walls, replacing them by wide roads around the ancient city centre. Suburbs were built, providing living room for the rapidly expanding population. The Industrial Revolution in Russia The development of Russia into a capitalist industry was taking place rapidly in the last part of the nineteenth century. In 1855, at the end of the reign of Nicholas I, there was only one railway line in the whole of Russia. But during the reign of Alexander II railway construction went ahead rapidly, and this, in turn helped industrial development. There was a shift from the countryside to the big towns and a town working class developed. Again, after 1893 and the alliance with France, a huge amount of French money was loaned to Russia for industrial development. By 1914, there were over 3 million factory workers in Russia and she was the fifth in order of production among the industrial nations. The Industrial Revolution Social Consequences The Industrial Revolution is widespread replacement of manual labour by machines that began in Britain in the 18 th century and is still continuing in some parts of the world. The Industrial Revolution was the result of many fundamental, interrelated changes that transformed agricultural economies into industrial ones. The most immediate changes were in Mr. S. Sciberras 10

11 the nature of production: what was produced, as well as where and how. Goods that had traditionally been made in the home or in small workshops began to be manufactured in the factory. Productivity and technical efficiency grew dramatically, in part through the systematic application of scientific and practical knowledge to the manufacturing process. Efficiency was also enhanced when large groups of business enterprises were located within a limited area. The Industrial Revolution led to the growth of cities as people moved from rural areas into urban communities in search of work. The changes brought by the Industrial Revolution overturned not only traditional economies, but also whole societies. Economic changes caused far-reaching social changes, including the movement of people to cities, the availability of a greater variety of material goods, and new ways of doing business. The Industrial Revolution was the first step in modern economic growth and development. Economic development was combined with superior military technology to make the nations of Europe and their cultural offshoots, such as the United States, the most powerful in the world in the 18 th and 19 th centuries. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain during the last half of the 18 th century and spread through regions of Europe and to the United States during the following century. In the 20 th century industrialisation on a wide scale extended to parts of Asia and the Pacific Rim. Today mechanised production and modern economic growth continue to spread to new areas of the world, and much of humankind has yet to experience the changes typical of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution is called a revolution because it changed society both significantly and rapidly. Over the course of human history, there has been only one other group of changes as significant as the Industrial Revolution. This is what anthropologists call the Neolithic Revolution, which took place in the later part of the Stone Age. In the Neolithic Revolution, people moved from social systems based on hunting and gathering to much more complex communities that depended on agriculture and the domestication of animals. This led to the rise of permanent settlements and, eventually, urban civilizations. The Industrial Revolution brought a shift from the agricultural societies created during the Neolithic Revolution to modern industrial societies. Mr. S. Sciberras 11

12 The social changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution were significant. As economic activities in many communities moved from agriculture to manufacturing, production shifted from its traditional locations in the home and the small workshop to factories. Large portions of the population relocated from the countryside to the towns and cities where manufacturing centres were found. The overall amount of goods and services produced expanded dramatically, and the proportion of capital invested per worker grew. New groups of investors, businesspeople, and managers took financial risks and reaped great rewards. In the long run, the Industrial Revolution has brought economic improvement for most people in industrialised societies. Many enjoy greater prosperity and improved health, especially those in the middle and the upper classes of society. There have been costs, however. In some cases, the lower classes of society have suffered economically. Industrialisation has brought factory pollutants and greater land use, which have harmed the natural environment. In particular, the application of machinery and science to agriculture has led to greater land use and, therefore, extensive loss of habitat for animals and plants. In addition, drastic population growth following industrialisation has contributed to the decline of natural habitats and resources. These factors, in turn, have caused many species to become extinct or endangered. Ever since the Renaissance (14 th to 17 th century), Europeans have been inventing and using more complex machinery. Particularly important were improvements in transportation, such as faster ships, and communication, especially printing. These improvements played a key role in the development of the Industrial Revolution by encouraging the movement of new ideas and mechanisms, as well as the people who knew how to build and run them. Then, in the 18 th century in Britain, new production methods were introduced in several key industries, dramatically altering how these industries functioned. These new methods included different machines, fresh sources of power and energy, and novel forms of organising business and labour. For the first time technical and scientific knowledge was applied to business practices on a large scale. Humankind had begun to develop mass production. The result was an increase in material goods, usually selling for lower prices than before. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain because social, political, and legal conditions there were particularly favourable to change. Property rights, such as those for Mr. S. Sciberras 12

13 patents on mechanical improvements, were well established. More importantly, the predictable, stable rule of law in Britain meant that monarchs and aristocrats were less likely to arbitrarily seize earnings or impose taxes than they were in many other countries. As a result, earnings were safer, and ambitious businesspeople could gain wealth, social prestige, and power more easily than could people on the European continent. These factors encouraged risk taking and investment in new business ventures, both crucial to economic growth. In addition, Great Britain s government pursued a relatively hands-off economic policy. This free-market approach was made popular through British philosopher and economist Adam Smith and his book The Wealth of Nations (1776). The hands-off policy permitted fresh methods and ideas to flourish with little interference or regulation. Britain s nurturing social and political setting encouraged the changes that began in a few trades to spread to others. Gradually the new ways of production transformed more and more parts of the British economy, although older methods continued in many industries. Several industries played key roles in Britain s industrialisation. Iron and steel manufacture, the production of steam engines, and textiles were all powerful influences, as was the rise of a machine-building sector able to spread mechanization to other parts of the economy. A. Changes in Industry Modern industry requires power to run its machinery. During the development of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, coal was the main source of power. Even before the 18th century, some British industries had begun using the country s plentiful coal supply instead of wood, which was much scarcer. Coal was adopted by the brewing, metalworking, and glass and ceramics industries, demonstrating its potential for use in many industrial processes. Iron and Coal A major breakthrough in the use of coal occurred in 1709 at Coalbrookedale in the valley of the Severn River. There English industrialist Abraham Darby successfully used coke (a highcarbon, converted form of coal) to produce iron from iron ore. Using coke eliminated the Mr. S. Sciberras 13

14 need for charcoal, a more expensive, less efficient fuel. Metal makers thereafter discovered ways of using coal and coke to speed the production of raw iron, bar iron, and other metals. The most important advance in iron production occurred in 1784 when Englishman Henry Cort invented new techniques for rolling raw iron, a finishing process that shapes iron into the desired size and form. These advances in metalworking were an important part of industrialisation. They enabled iron, which was relatively inexpensive and abundant, to be used in many new ways, such as building heavy machinery. Iron was well suited for heavy machinery because of its strength and durability. Because of these new developments iron came to be used in machinery for many industries. Iron was also vital to the development of railroads, which improved transportation. Better transportation made commerce easier, and along with the growth of commerce enabled economic growth to spread to additional regions. In this way, the changes of the Industrial Revolution reinforced each other, working together to transform the British economy. Steam If iron was the key metal of the Industrial Revolution, the steam engine was perhaps the most important machine technology. Inventions and improvements in the use of steam for power began prior to the 18th century, as they had with iron. As early as 1689, English engineer Thomas Savery created a steam engine to pump water from mines. Thomas Newcomen, another English engineer, developed an improved version by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt made the most significant improvements, allowing the steam engine to be used in many industrial settings, not just in mining. Early mills had run successfully with water power, but the advancement of using the steam engine meant that a factory could be located anywhere, not just close to water. In 1775, Watt formed an engine-building and engineering partnership with manufacturer Matthew Boulton. This partnership became one of the most important businesses of the Industrial Revolution. Boulton & Watt served as a kind of creative technical centre for much of the British economy. They solved technical problems and spread the solutions to other companies. Similar firms did the same thing in other industries and were especially important in the machine tool industry. This type of interaction between companies was important because it reduced the amount of research time and expense that each business had to spend Mr. S. Sciberras 14

15 working with its own resources. The technological advances of the Industrial Revolution happened more quickly because firms often shared information, which they then could use to create new techniques or products. Like iron production, steam engines found many uses in a variety of other industries, including steamboats and railroads. Steam engines are another example of how some changes brought by industrialization led to even more changes in other areas. Textiles The industry most often associated with the Industrial Revolution is the textile industry. In earlier times, the spinning of yarn and the weaving of cloth occurred primarily in the home, with most of the work done by people working alone or with family members. This pattern lasted for many centuries. In the 18 th century, Great Britain a series of extraordinary innovations reduced and then replaced the human labour required to make cloth. Each advance created problems elsewhere in the production process that led to further improvements. Together they made a new system to supply clothing. The first important invention in textile production came in British inventor John Kay created a device known as the flying shuttle, which partially mechanised the process of weaving. By 1770 British inventor and industrialist James Hargreaves had invented the spinning jenny, a machine that spins a number of threads at once, and British inventor and cotton manufacturer Richard Arkwright had organised the first production using waterpowered spinning. These developments permitted a single spinner to make numerous strands of yarn at the same time. By about 1779 British inventor Samuel Crompton introduced a machine called the mule, which further improved mechanised spinning by decreasing the danger that threads would break and by creating a finer thread. Throughout the textile industry, specialized machines powered either by water or steam appeared. Row upon row of these innovative, highly productive machines filled large, new mills and factories. Soon Britain was supplying cloth to countries throughout the world. This industry seemed to many people to be the embodiment of an emerging, mechanized civilisation. Mr. S. Sciberras 15

16 The most important results of these changes were enormous increases in the output of goods per worker. A single spinner or weaver, for example, could now turn out many times the volume of yarn or cloth that earlier workers had produced. This marvel of rising productivity was the central economic achievement that made the Industrial Revolution such a milestone in human history. B. Changes in Society The Industrial Revolution also had considerable impact upon the nature of work. It significantly changed the daily lives of ordinary men, women, and children in the regions where it took root and grew. Growth of Cities One of the most obvious changes to people s lives was that more people moved into the urban areas where factories were located. Many of the agricultural labourers who left villages were forced to move. Beginning in the early 18 th century, more people in rural areas were competing for fewer jobs. The rural population had risen sharply as new sources of food became available, and death rates declined due to fewer plagues and wars. At the same time, many small farms disappeared. This was partly because new enclosure laws required farmers to put fences or hedges around their fields to prevent common grazing on the land. Some small farmers who could not afford to enclose their fields had to sell out to larger landholders and search for work elsewhere. These factors combined to provide a ready work force for the new industries. New manufacturing towns and cities grew dramatically. Many of these cities were close to the coalfields that supplied fuel to the factories. Factories had to be close to sources of power because power could not be distributed very far. The names of British factory cities soon symbolised industrialisation to the wider world: Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Sheffield, and especially Manchester. In the early 1770s Manchester numbered only 25,000 inhabitants. By 1850, after it had become a centre of cotton manufacturing, its population had grown to more than 350,000. In pre-industrial England, more than three-quarters of the population lived in small villages. By the mid-19 th century, however, the country had made history by becoming the first nation Mr. S. Sciberras 16

17 with half its population in cities. By 1850 millions of British people lived in crowded, grim industrial cities. Reformers began to speak of the mills and factories as dark, evil places. Effects on Labour The movement of people away from agriculture and into industrial cities brought great stresses to many people in the labour force. Women in households who had earned income from spinning found the new factories taking away their source of income. Traditional handloom weavers could no longer compete with the mechanised production of cloth. Skilled labourers sometimes lost their jobs as new machines replaced them. In the factories, people had to work long hours under harsh conditions, often with few rewards. Factory owners and managers paid the minimum amount necessary for a work force, often recruiting women and children to tend the machines because they could be hired for very low wages. Soon critics attacked this exploitation, particularly the use of child labour. The nature of work changed as a result of division of labour, an idea important to the Industrial Revolution that called for dividing the production process into basic, individual tasks. Each worker would then perform one task, rather than a single worker doing the entire job. Such division of labour greatly improved productivity, but many of the simplified factory jobs were repetitive and boring. Workers also had to labour for many hours, often more than 12 hours a day, sometimes more than 14, and people worked six days a week. Factory workers faced strict rules and close supervision by managers and overseers. The clock ruled life in the mills. By about the 1820s, income levels for most workers began to improve, and people adjusted to the different circumstances and conditions. By that time, Britain had changed forever. The economy was expanding at a rate that was more than twice the pace at which it had grown before the Industrial Revolution. Although vast differences existed between the rich and the poor, most of the population enjoyed some of the fruits of economic growth. The widespread poverty and constant threat of mass starvation that had haunted the pre-industrial age lessened in industrial Britain. Although the overall health and material conditions of the populace clearly improved, critics continued to point to urban crowding and the harsh working conditions for many in the mills. Mr. S. Sciberras 17