Electronic Instruments and Instrumentation Technology

Transcription

1 Electronic Instruments and Instrumentation Technology M.M.S. Anand

2 Electronic Instruments and Instrumentation Technology M.M.S. ANAND Professor Electronics and Instrumentation and Registrar Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani Delhi

3 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION TECHNOLOGY M.M.S. Anand 2004 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Ninth Printing January, 2013 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited, New Delhi

4 I dedicate this book to my parents.

5

6 Contents Preface...xv Section I Instruments and Accessories 1. ANALOG METERS Introduction Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Meters DC Analog Meters DC Ammeter DC Voltmeter Ohmmeter Multimeter Calibration AC Analog Meters Half-wave Rectifier-based Meter Full-wave Rectifier-based Meter Nonsinusoidal Waveform Input Peak Reading Voltmeter Peak-to-Peak Reading Voltmeter Other Meter Movements Electrodynamic Meter Movement Moving Iron (Vane) Meter Movement Electronic Analog Meters Electronic Analog DC Voltmeter Electronic Analog DC Ammeter Electronic Analog AC Voltmeter Electronic Analog AC Ammeter Electronic Analog Ohmmeter Electronic Analog Multimeter Questions v

7 vi Contents 2. DIGITAL METERS Introduction Digital-to-Analog Converter Transfer Characteristics D/A Conversion Techniques Digital Input Modes of Operation Performance Characteristics of D/A Converters Analog-to-Digital Converter Transfer Characteristics A/D Conversion Techniques Digital Meter Displays Specifications of Digital Meters Display Digits and Counts Resolution Sensitivity Accuracy, Uncertainty and Repeatability Speed and Settling Time Average/True Root Mean Square (TRMS) Crest Factor Form Factor Normal Mode Rejection Ratio (NMRR) Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) Effective Common Mode Rejection Ratio (ECMRR) Zero or Offset Frequency Response Input Resistance Input Bias Current Overload Protection Autoranging Autozero Four-wire Remote Sensing Environmental Specifications Safety Ratings Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Additional Measurement Features DMM Calibration DC Voltage Calibration Strategy Functional Tests Input Characteristics Resistance Calibration Strategy Resistance Function Linearity Tests AC Voltage Calibration Strategy Current Calibration Strategy Zero Considerations Generating a Test Plan Measurement Uncertainty Selecting a DMM Questions

8 Contents vii 3. ANALOG AND DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPES Introduction Types of Oscilloscopes Analog Oscilloscopes Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope (DPO) The Controls Display Controls Vertical Controls Horizontal Controls Trigger Controls Acquisition Controls for Digitizing Oscilloscopes Sampling Methods Other Controls Measurements Voltage Measurements Time and Frequency Measurements Pulse and Rise Time Measurements Fully Automated Measurements with Digitizing Oscilloscopes Selecting an Oscilloscope The 5 Times Rule for Bandwidth Sample Rate Triggering Record Length Analog vs DSO vs DPO Questions PROBES Introduction Types of Probes Passive Voltage Probes Active Voltage Probes Current Probes Logic Probes Optical Probes Other Probes Probe Loading and Measurement Effects Resistive Loading Capacitive Loading Inductive Loading Probe Specifications Questions

9 viii Contents 5. BRIDGE INSTRUMENTS Introduction Direct Current Bridges Wheatstone Bridge Kelvin Bridge Alternating Current Bridges Maxwell Bridge Hay s Bridge Schering Bridge Wien Bridge Wagner Ground Connection Anderson Loop LCR Bridge Questions RECORDERS AND DATA LOGGERS Introduction Distinction between a Recorder and a Data Logger Strip Chart Recorder PMMC Galvanometer Type Potentiometric/Servo/Null Balancing Recorders X-Y Recorder Data Loggers Videographic or Paperless Recorders Recorder Selection Questions SIGNAL GENERATORS Introduction Sine-wave Generators Audio Frequency Signal Generators Radio Frequency Signal Generators Non-sinusoidal Generators Function Generators Pulse Parameter Definitions Frequency Synthesis Techniques Direct Analog Synthesis Indirect Synthesis Direct Digital Synthesis Digital Signal Generators Arbitrary Waveform Generator Arbitrary Function Generator Data Generator Key Characteristics of Digital Signal Generators Questions

10 Contents ix 8. SIGNAL ANALYZERS Introduction Distortion Harmonic Distortion Intermodulation Distortion (IMD) Distortion Measuring Instruments Distortion Analyzer Wave Analyzer Intermodulation Analyzer Spectrum Analyzer Frequency-domain Display Capabilities Types of Spectrum Analyzers FFT Analyzer Vector Analyzer Digitizing Oscilloscope Logic Analyzer Oscilloscope or Logic Analyzer Types of Logic Analyzers Logic Timing Analyzer (LTA) Logic State Analyzer (LSA) Block Diagram of Logic Analyzer Interfacing Target System What to Look for in a Logic Analyzer? Questions ELECTRONIC COUNTERS Introduction Conventional Electronic Counters Basic Measurements Design Considerations Sources of Measurement Errors Reciprocal Electronic Counters Specifications of Electronic Counters Input Characteristics Operating Mode Specifications Questions Section II Instrument Design and Manufacturing Techniques 10. GROUNDING AND SHIELDING Introduction Grounding The Concept of Earth Ground An Illustration of a Typical Power Supply Grounding Error Some Examples of Current Return Path Symbols

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