(B) The simplest way to measure the light intensity is using a photodiode in the photoconductive mode:

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1 PHY226 Electronics Final Preparation 1. Optoelectronics: LEDs and photodiodes (A) LEDs and photodiodes are essentially semi conductor diodes which can interact with electromagnetic waves. Explain why in their operation, LEDs must be forward biased while photodiodes reversely biased? (B) The simplest way to measure the light intensity is using a photodiode in the photoconductive mode: You are a solar physicist. Sun delivers about 1.0 kw/m 2 on the earth surface and you wish to study the solar activity by monitoring its intensity. You use the above circuit diagram with a photodiode (area 1mm 2, overall quantum efficiency of 30% at the mean solar wavelength of 500 nm) to measure the sun light. How would you choose the resistor such that the voltage output is about 1V? (C) Use the following photodiode equivalent circuit and calculate the gain bandwidth product in the photovoltaic mode (Hint: Gain G is defined as the voltage across the Anode and Cathode per unit current. Bandwidth BW is the frequency at which the gain reduces by a factor of 2 relative to the gain at DC. Gain bandwidth product is the multiplicative product of G and BW.)

2 2. Converting an analog signal to a digital signal (A) What are the general issues of converting an analog signal into a digital signal? (B) The Schmitt trigger is designed to remove fluctuations near the switching threshold. Assume the maximum output of the op amp in the following circuit is +5V and the minimum is 0V, R1=R2=10 k, calculate the upper and lower switching threshold voltages. (C) Continue (B), if V in (t) = 5 Volt * sin t, describe or draw the expected output waveform.

3 3. Digital gates and Boolean algebra Commonly used gates are summarized below (A) Based on the truth tables, show that the following circuit can be reduced to a single logic gate. What kind of gate is it? (B) Reduce the following expression: A BC AB

4 4. Flip flops Flip flops are the fundamental memory units. At the center of them is the SR (set reset) flip flop, given in the diagram below in terms of two NAND gates. Such device can store 1 bit of information. (A) Based on the truth table of the NAND gate, show that the system develops a bistability Q=1 or 1 only when both S and R are 1. (B) Such bistability is the key of the memory storage. If the information you wish to save is 1, describe the procedure you would use to set Q=1. (C) In typical operation of SR flip flop, the unused mode is S=R=1. What would be the outputs be in this case?

5 5. FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) Two key components in an FPGA are 1. Construction of an arbitrary logic circuit and 2. rewiring. Here we will talk about the former. (A) A generic look up table can be built based on repeated use of the following three terminal logic component, where L, R and G are digital inputs, and O is the output. L R G O Its operation principle is: When G=0, output connects to the left input O=L. When G=1, output connects to the right, O=R. How would you construct such a three terminal gate based on the fundamental gates listed in Problem 3? (There are multiple ways, choose a simple one you like.) (B) How would you build the generic look up table using the 3 terminal gates described in (A)? Here A1, A2, A3 are inputs, O is output, and a, b. h are Boolean constants with fixed values of 0 or 1. A1 A2 A3 O a b c d e f g h

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