Table of Contents. I Paper

Transcription

1 Table of Contents I Paper 1. Before the invention of paper The invention of paper.3 3.The paper in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties Description of different types of paper in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties The diversification of using paper and paper products was common Some high quality paper appeared as a resulted of advancement in papermaking technology The paper in Song The books about paper in Sung and Yuan The beginning of bamboo and straw paper, and the comprehensive development of bark paper Bamboo paper( 竹紙 ) Rice straw and wheat straw paper( 稻麥草紙 ) Bark paper( 皮紙 ) Reprocessed paper( 再生紙 or call 還魂紙 ) Paper production was specialization and concentration The paper for printing, painting and calligraphy The efficient making paper pulp technology in Song-Yuan Varieties of reprocessed paper( 加工紙 ) and famous paper 謝公十色箋 金栗藏經紙 The golden paper ( 金花紙 ) and the water-brushed paper( 水紋紙 ) in Song were called 砑花紙 and 魚子箋 Paper products Paper money The origins of paper money Paper money in Song..21 II Printing 1. The origins of printing The invention of woodblock printing and printing in Tang ( ) 1

2 and Five Dynasties ( ) Printing in late Tang Printing in Five Dynasties Printing in Ten Kingdoms Period Printing in the Song Dynasty ( ) The types of published book were of a wide variety Government printing and private printing flourished in Song Government printing Private printing Main printing industry regions in Song Dynasty The invention and movable type printing Wood movable type Metal movable type Bookbinding in Song Printing in the Liao, Western Xia and Jin Dynasties Printing in Liao Dynasty Printing in Jin Dynasty Printing in Western Xia ( 西夏 )...38 III Writing/Print/Materials 1. Ink Brush Inkstone..40 Figure 41 References 49

3 I Paper 1.Before the invention of paper In paleolithic period, human being do not understand the writing, besides using language directly, also can use 結繩紀事 - It is tying cords in different shape and size the knots to record events. 1 - see figure below. < figure 2 > About Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, pictographs ( 象形文字 )appeared, so human being has engraved words on bones, turtle shells, bronzes, jade, and stones. 3 - see two figures below. < figure 4 > 1 潘吉星,(1998),P33 潘吉星,(1979),P20 戴家璋,(1994),P2 2 潘吉星,(1998),P34 3 潘吉星,(1998),P35 潘吉星,(1979),P21 戴家璋,(1994),P2 4 潘吉星,(1998),P34 1

4 <figure 5 > After the writing brush was invented, people started to write on the bamboo strips. Many bamboo strips were made into a book, called " 簡冊 "-see figure below, which was popular from 春秋 to Eastern Han Dynasty last years. There are also some people write on 縑帛 (silk fabric), but 縑帛 (silk fabric) was expensive and 簡冊 is unwieldy, so that writing books became very not convenient. Therefore Chinese then invented the paper to solve this problem. 6 < figure 7 > 5 戴家璋,(1994),P25 6 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1979),P 戴家璋,(1994),P2 7 潘吉星,(1998),P38 2

5 2. The invention of paper Because people were urgent need in finding new writting material to replace 縑 帛 and 簡冊, in Western Han Dynasty, the working people used waste hemps and rags, tried to find out new writting material with the experiments for a long time, finally invented the hempen paper( 麻紙 ) 8, such as 灞橋紙 and 金關紙 were rough hempen papers. 9 writing. 10 But these hempen papers often use to warp goods up, certainly not In Eastern Han Dynasty, one official, 蔡倫 - see figure below, he used four materials to make paper - hemp, rag, fishing net and bark. His main contribution was the bark papermaking. 11 He tested with the experiments for a long time, then improved hemps and rags papermaking technology to make smooth careful hempen papers, afterwards used the broken fishing net to make the hempen papers, finally changed to the inexpensive vegetable fiber - Broussonetia papyrifera - the bark of a kind of mulberry - to make paper. 12 After that he gave barky paper to the royal government, meanwhile promoted the using of paper. In summary, 蔡倫 s contributions on papermaking are: a. He discovered new material (fishing net) to make hempen paper, also improved the hempen paper manufacture technology, produced the high quality hempen paper. b. He developed the barky paper, found the new material for papermaking to boost the original papermaking technology. c. He promoted the using of paper and papermaking technology. 13 After 蔡倫 improved the papermaking, the paper became a written material to replace 縑帛 and 簡冊 潘吉星,(1979),P36 9 潘吉星,(1979),P28 戴家璋,(1994),P3 10 潘吉星,(1979),P30 11 戴家璋,(1994),P50 12 潘吉星,(1998),P71 戴家璋,(1994),P3 13 潘吉星,(1998),P86 潘吉星,(1979),P32 戴家璋,(1994),P64 14 潘吉星,(1979),P36 3

6 <figure 15 > In the Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties, the paper has promoted positively in the society, for instance, the Eastern Jin Dynasty last years, some rulers stipulated paper must be used for the official written material. 16 In Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties, people besides still used hempen paper usually, they also use other materials to make paper, for instance, some people began to use vine ( 藤 ) to make paper in 晉朝 The paper in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties Because the 科舉制度 was administered in Sui and Tang, people can be officials through the examination, so the persons who studied were more and more. It promoted education. In addition, people esteemed Buddhism and Taoism in Tang, they needed a lot of papers to hand copy books for education and religion. But the supply of hand copied books was more than demand, so that promoted the development of block printing. Using once block printing can make thousand or ten thousand books and it also promoted the product of paprmaking. 18 Many scholars believe Chinese papermaking technology in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties was in a development phase. During this time, there were more types of materials of papermaking, and more types of bark paper relative to the Six Dynasty period. During Sui, Tang and Five Dynasty period, many regions produced papers, including the national minority regions see figure below. The using of paper on other ways were more and more, and we can see that in people s daily life 戴家璋,(1994), 封面圖 1 16 潘吉星,(1979),P53 17 潘吉星,(1979),P55 58 戴家璋,(1994),P76 18 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P139 潘吉星,(1979),P68 4

7 <figure 20 > There were many papermaking regions obviously increased in Sui Tang and Five Dynasties. Official papermaking mills were set in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Anhui, Sichuan where important producing paper zones. It also came out many mid- and small-scale private papermaking mills. 21 There were also many papermaking mills which were established by the minority group in west- north remote area. Besides domestic consumption, these western minority groups also exported paper to various countries a west of China. 22 Books in Sui, Tang dynasty were as like as it in Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties, but they differed from late Tang and Five Dynasties. In the Sui, Tang period, sheets of paper were made to stick together side by side. The result was a long line of connected sheets of paper. After written on these were rolled up with a wooden stick and these scrolls served as books but were not easy to open and read. During late Tang and Five Dynasties another form of book appeared that writing on thicker paper, two-side, and binding it together with stitch. Just like modern books, it was easy to page through Description of different types of paper in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties In the Sui and Tang dynasties, we can see people took wild plant to make paper. 20 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P153 5

8 Besides the hemp paper which was the main paper people used, the use of bark paper and the vine paper increased gradually, and bamboo paper was began appear. 24 It is worth mentioning that the technology of returning scrap paper to make the recycled paper was begun it became common in Song. 25 People used rags to make hemp paper, they also directly used wild hemp to make paper in Tang. Chinese wild hemp was naturally widely available and resulted in the cost of papermaking decreasing. 26 People also used bamboo paper in Tang, especially officials and common persons. 27 Production of bark paper increased due to the fact that it was softer and smoother than hemp paper, so people like to use bark more than hemp paper. 28 Bamboo paper appeared in Tang. It is a contribution for Chinese papermaking technology, because bamboo papermaking was more difficult than other papermaking technologies. 29 The growth of vine is slower, supply of vine was unable to meet demand, so that bamboo paper replaced vine paper gradually. In middle or late Tang, bamboo became a kind of material of papermaking in south Chin and developed quickly The diversification of using paper and paper products was common As above we see, because the types of papermaking materials were varied - this led to the cost of producing paper decrease, and the price of paper was also decreased. The resulted in paper products having widespread application in people s daily life. The main application of paper was writing in Tang, such as hand copied official or private documents, contracts, books and paintings. 31 There were other paper products in Tang: a. The decorations:paper-umbrellas, paper-fans, lanterns, paper art carvings and paper window ( 紙糊窗格 ),ect. b. Textile substitutes:paper-clothes, paper-hats, paper-shoes and paperblankets,ect see figure below. 24 潘吉星,(1998),P139 杜石然等,(1982),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P139 潘吉星,(1979),P69 27 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 杜石然等,(1982),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1979),P76 6

9 c. Funerals:paper-coffins (see figure below), paper-dolls, paper-animals and paper money (paper made to resemble money and burned as an offering to the dead), ect. d. Others:packing paper, recycled paper, playing cards and bank drafts (are Tang s 飛錢 ). 32 <figure 33 > <figure 34 > Paper umbrella was popular after Tang dynasty. In Southern Tang Dynasty( 南唐 ), some people made paper umbrella as the job, and the business was good. Paper kite became popular toys in Sui Tang and Five Dynasties. 後唐慶宗 ordered the subordinate to make paper kite which would make sounds while in the air. 35 During Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties generally paper clothes were made of 楮皮 紙 (mulberry bark made), which could against the cold and well-ventilated. Moreover, paper armors which were made of multilayer pasteboard for the soldiers 32 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1979),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P156 7

10 protected body when they were in a battle. The paper clothes became more popular from Song dynasty, and the paper armors were still used in Sung and Ming dynasty. 36 The business card were common in Sui and Tang Dynasty. During Tang, there were professional business card making stores on streets in 長安, and the business was good. 37 There was a great amount of tissue use for toilet paper in Tang dynasty. Most tissues were made of used written paper Some high quality paper appeared as a resulted of advancement in papermaking technology. In the Tang there were two types of paper. and the second type was treated paper for writing and painting. The first type was unfinished paper The difference of the unfinished paper and the treated paper was that the treated paper has a finish ( 施 膠 ), so as to block the paper pores and can prevent bleeding. Both the unfinished paper and the treated paper were used in Tang, but the treated paper was used much more. 39 There were huge pieces of bark paper and paper lightly tainted with five colored streaks the five colors streaks on white paper - in late Tang see figure below for large piece of bark paper. technology. 40 It is also a contribution for papermaking <figure 41 > The high quality paper in Tang included hard-yellow ( 硬黃紙 ), hard-white ( 硬白 36 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1979),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P165 8

11 紙 ), the golden allover paper ( 金花紙 ), the water-marked paper( 水紋紙 ) and 澄心堂 紙. a. Hard-yellow ( 硬黃紙 ) and hard-white ( 硬白紙 ):there were many kinds of colored paper in Tang Dynasty, especially the yellow paper was used much. People liked to write classics( 經書 ) on the yellow papers and so did the calligraphers. There was one kind of crayon-processed paper, which is canary yellow, with special fragrance, and was processed with good paper. This kind of paper is suitable to write. This kind of paper produced much more during early and middle Tang, was rare in late Tang and Five Dynasties. 42 Such paper which was not dyed yellow is called hard-while( 硬白紙 ). 43 This kind paper was developed well in Sung. 44 (please see 金栗藏經紙, which was the same type of yellow paper in the Sung, but had a different name.) b. the golden allover paper ( 金花紙 ), also called 銀花紙 酒金銀紙 冷金紙 : This kind of paper is that the Tang s paper labors joined some decoration technologies in the papermaking. They used gold and silver piece, or powder to decorate paper. This kind of paper was expensive, which was luxury goods for the people in the upper reaches of society in Tang. 45 c. the water-marked paper( 水紋紙 ), also called 花窗紙 embossing paper ( 壓花紙 ):When you are looking at this kind of paper, you can see the shining line grain or the design except for the window grain ( 窗紋 ). It is in purpose of increasing a sense of beauty of paper. Now various countries use such technology to make paper money, letter paper, and the stock paper. 46 d. 澄心堂紙 :The most famous paper in the Five Dynasties was a type of paper from Southern Tang Dynasty ( 南唐 ). 澄心堂 is a place which Southern Tang Dynasty ( 南唐 ) emperor reads. The emperor set a bureau to make the famous high quality paper for use in the court. So it was called 澄心堂 paper. 47 南唐澄心堂紙 was produced from 歙州和池州 ( 現在的安徽歙縣和貴池 ), made of 楮皮 (the bark of a kind of mulberry). The characteristics 南唐澄心堂紙 were pure whiteness, smooth surface, hard, weight and it also absorbs ink easily. It s famous and precious 42 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P168 潘吉星,(1979),P83 44 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P176 潘吉星,(1979),P84 46 潘吉星,(1998),P176 潘吉星,(1979),PP 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1979),P85 9

12 because of the scarcity, so some counterfeits had been produced from Northern Sung to Ching dynasty( 乾隆 ). 48 The reason why they can produced that kind papers with high quality is that some provinces of the Southern Tang Dynasty were original papermaking center of the Tang Dynasty with abundant papermaking resources and professional workers. the huge pieces of bark paper which we have mentioned had been produced in Southern Tang Dynasty. 49 Such as 4. The paper in Song Many scholars believe Chinese papermaking technology in Sung and Yuan Dynasties was in a mature phase. The materials of paper were much more than Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, moreover, people created new papermaking process technique in this phase. Specially, during Sung, Yuan dynasties there were some books which elaborated manufacture technology, history of about paper and some commentaries on many kinds of paper appeared The books about paper in Sung and Yuan During Sung, there were some books appeared which took paper as the research object, and it did not in the Tang Dynasty. For example Southern Sung, 陳槱 s book, 負喧野錄. Below are some famous books about paper: a. Northern Sung, 蘇易簡的 文房四譜 or called 文房四寶譜, this is the first book about paper in history. It talks about the use, manufacture, and history of paper, ink, writing brush, and inkstone. 51 b. the Northern Sung famous painter, Mi Fu( 米芾 ), the first painter to draw art in books. His books, 評紙論 or called 十紙說, commented each kind of paper from the perspaective of calligraphy and painting expert. This book discussed with his paper experience for many years, and many conclusions in this book were valuable 潘吉星,(1998),P179 戴家璋,(1994),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P221 10

13 c. in the Yuan 費著 was an official. His book, 蜀箋譜 or called 紙箋譜, continued to use 蘇易簡的 book style. But it paid more attention to discusses the 蜀箋 and 薛濤箋 (two types of paper in the Tang Dynasty) and a type of paper in early Northern Sung( 謝景初的十色箋 ) The beginning of bamboo and straw paper, and the comprehensive development of bark paper Bamboo paper( 竹紙 ) The bamboo paper already appeared in the late Tang, because the output was limited, bamboo paper didn t come into widespread use. From Northern Sung bamboo paper developed. 54 The Yangtze Delta ( 長江流域 ) and many provinces in 江南 were naturally endowed with bamboo. There were 50 kinds of bamboo were suitable for papermaking, and bamboo in uninhabited or mountainous areas were naturally widely available. Bamboo paper was made with bamboo's entire stem pole through a series of complex working procedures processing finally to become the paper. Wheat straw and rice straw paper were also made with the same principle. Scholars believe that during the Sung these original papermaking technology apply on new material was pioneering work on tradition papermaking idea. Obviously, the bamboo paper appeared after the barky paper technology achieved suitable degree development. People think that bamboo can be used to make paper probably because young bamboo can make the string, even used bamboo textile fiber to make shoes or to weave the cloth, thus associated may the papermaking. 55 In Northern Song Dynasty bamboo paper was used for writing, such as Su Dongpo( 蘇東坡 ), Mi Fu( 米芾 ), Wang Anshi( 王安石 ) and Sung s writers, calligraphers and painters all liked to use bamboo paper. In addition, after printing technology was invented Sung and Yuan s people used bamboo paper to prin. 56 Another innovation was that Sung People mixed bamboo and other materials to make paper. Because the material of bamboo was naturally low cost, the supply of bamboo paper exceeded more than other materials(hemp 麻 and bark 皮 ). Then people used surplus materials of hemp or bark mixed with bamboo to make paper which including the advantages of bamboo and barky paper and the cost was 53 潘吉星,(1998),P 斯波義信,(1968),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP188,392 戴家璋,(1994),P123 斯波義信,(1968),PP

14 moderate. Some of Mi Fi( 米芾 ) s paintings used this kind paper, such as 寒光帖 破羌帖跋 公議帖 新恩帖. 57 The bamboo paper which appeared in Song Dynasty very quickly replaced hempen( 麻 ) and vine( 藤 ) paper that were popular in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties( bark( 皮 ) paper continued to be used in Song) Rice straw and wheat straw paper( 稻麥草紙 ) At least by the 10 th century, Chinese had used wheat and rice straw in papermaking, this kind of paper was brittle and thin. Rice was the Chinese southerner's staple food, so the cultivation of rice was multitudinous, therefore rice straw supply was bounteously. The cost of rice straw papermaking was lower than bamboo, moreover, the manufacture process was simpler than bamboo paper. This invention appeared by the Northern Song Dynasty, probably started from Tang Dynasty. 59 Wheat was the Chinese northerner's staple food, the cultivation of wheat was also multitudinous, the supply of wheat straw as sufficiently as rice, therefore it had used to be a papermaking material. Normally, 3 kilograms rice straws would make 1 kilogram paper. The main advantage of rice and wheat straw paper was their low cost. It was used for packing paper, toilet paper and paper for burning (such as fake paper money or paper dolls). practicing during Song and Yuan. The custom which is burning fake paper money kept burn massive amounts hempen and barky paper every year. But during this period people continued to use and It was a frugal measure to replace hempen and barky paper with rice and wheat straw paper to burn. rice and wheat harvested according to the season, it did not destroy the natural resource, and reduced the waste of barky paper, therefore the production of straw paper meant economical significance. 60 The Bark paper( 皮紙 ) Hemp paper gradually became less popular than bamboo and bark paper. Hemp paper was only produced in Sichuan( 四川 ) and by the northern minorities in Sung and Yuan. For instance, books printed at 平陽 were called 平水版 used hemp paper in 山西. People still used bark paper because it was resistant to damage from pests 57 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P189 12

15 (such as bugs), tough and durable as same as hemp paper, moreover, barky paper was more white, smoother, and softer than hemp paper. Bark paper was suitable for any use, specially painting. In addition, bark paper was higher quality in any aspects than bamboo paper, expect the cost was higher than bamboo. People still used bark paper on calligraphy, painting, printing, public or private documents and contracts in Sung and Yuan. Painters and calligraphers had high standards in the material of picture, so they liked to use bark paper in Sung and Yuan. Therefore, bark paper was still the main paper of the high-level paper. In Sung-Yuan People were accustomed to using bamboo paper to print the vast amount of common reading materials. 61 But for high quality books they used bark paper Reprocessed paper( 再生紙 or call 還魂紙 ) In order to reduce the production cost, make the best use of itself, people mixed the old paper pulp with the new to make paper again, was called reprocessed paper. Because the paper made of old paper pulp was not tough, they added the new paper pulp. There was a great amount of using reprocessed paper in Sung. The reprocessed papers in 湖廣 (place name) had been made from the persons whose examination paper failed an admissions examination and the old paper of tea sale permits mixed with new paper pulp for printing 會子 in Southern Sung. It is probably a shortage of supply of material of papermaking that caused reprocessed paper to appear. People had been used reprocessed paper to print classics during Southern Sung, for instance, the printing, 春秋繁露, which was from 江西 also used reprocessed paper to print in Southern Sung. 63 In order to use paper effectively, besides reprocessed paper, Sung people wrote or printed on paper back, was called 反故 64. In addition, there were some stores which recycled scrap paper in Hangzhou ( 杭州 ) Paper production was specialization and concentration There were many professional papermaking craftsmen and stores in Sung that was one reason why the paper production was great and good quality. The papermaking stores were differentiated from government owned and private owned. To make paper money the Southern Sung s government began making bark paper( 楮 61 潘吉星,(1998),PP190,191,203 戴家璋,(1994),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 戴家璋,(1994),P203 13

16 皮紙 ) in 徽州 and 成都, then delivered to 臨安 for printing, but the delivery costs were too expensive, therefore 宋孝宗 (Song emperor) established the papermaking bureau, which was large-scale and hired 1200 employees, these products mainly offered to government, not for selling on the market. Private papermaking stores most were made by family members, but some also hired workers to make paper. 66 The basic conditions of papermaking in Sung were the suitable water, the advantage of paper material distribution, and the advanced papermaking technology. Most the production of papermaking in Sung distributed to mountain villages in 江南. These villages were naturally endowed with the papermaking materials(hemp 麻, bamboo 竹, vine 藤, bark 楮 ) and the water quality of brooks was suitable to make paper. 67 So we can know in Song the paper production had already concentration. For instance there was a great amount of inhabitants earned their livelihood by making bamboo paper and bamboo handicrafts in 潭州 (at 湖南 ). Another example in 洪州 (at 江西 ) there were more 200 paper households produced paper for government use. Actually many inhabitants who live in mountain villages earned their livelihood by making paper. 68 Some papermaking stores offered paper to government for taxes in Sung Dynasty, the remains sold on the market. 69 Paper in the market competed with quality and price, and also was divided into different level to give different price. 70 Paper was very common in Sung, people of different social status consumed paper, like officials, literators, rich men, and commons, so that paper was divided into different level to supply each social group. 71 The increased paper consumption and people s preference to paper made paper market expand. A large number of official paper consumption led to paper market expand for famous papermaking places. For instance 潭州 (a province) produced 1,78 0,000 sheets of paper for government in early Northern Sung every year. Moreover 杭州 (a province) also produced 50,000 sheets of paper in middle Northern Sung and 洪州 produced 850,000 sheets of paper in early Southern Sung for government. 徽州 had produced paper money( 會紙 ) which total valued 500,000 (author not clear if this figure refers to total vale produced, the value of one unit of 66 漆俠,(1988),P 斯波義信,(1968),P 斯波義信,(1968),P 漆俠,(1988),P 斯波義信,(1968),P 斯波義信,(1968),P267 14

17 currency or total sheets of paper money). Actually there were many places offered paper for government use depended on fixed proportion every year, thus the official paper consumption was great in Sung. Sung people s preference to paper was pragmatism (or functionalism), they liked thin, white, glossy, durable, pest-resistant, and cheap paper, so solid, thick hemp paper and vine paper was replaced by thin bamboo and barky paper. There was the same tendency in official paper. 72 The paper households in famous papermaking places gathered together at the brooks which were nearby city suburbs or villages. Sung people used the most advanced papermaking method at that time, so the paper quality was good enough to compete on the market. Therefore these famous papermaking places had excellent reputation and in order to keep it, they started to imitate some famous and high quality paper from earlier times, such as 澄心唐紙 73. Sung people liked 澄心棠紙 of 南唐. Because it was rare and high quality, addition some Sung literary men appreciated through their poems led to the price of 南唐澄心唐紙 increased. 南唐澄心唐紙 was imitated from Northern Sung in order to satisfy Sung people s demand 74. But 澄心棠紙 in Sung thinner than real 澄心棠紙 in 南唐. 75 During Sung many paper stores in city clustered together to become 紙坊, or joined becoming a craft (author is silent on the type of organization if any among the stores in the location). They would process paper or produce paper which was requested by customer (including some types of personalized production specific styles or types ordered by customer - i.e. not bought off the shelf but produced based on customers request). For instance there was a 道人 (a type of local leader who in this case served as a middleman for other customers) in 洪州 (a province) deposited money to one paper store to ask it making fake paper money deducting fees from the deposit as needed. Moreover, some papermaking craftsmen made paper which was asked by customers for writing classics. 76 Sum up above we can see the paper production concentrated in location in Sung 77, and because of the paper preference, presented paper fashion situation Sung people like used bark or bamboo paper. Paper production concentrated depended on government demand. In addition, because the demand was great in 72 斯波義信,(1968),P 斯波義信,(1968),PP 潘吉星,(1998),PP 戴家璋,(1994),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 斯波義信,(1968),PP 斯波義信,(1968),P258 15

18 the market, it promoted the economical development in villages. People in villages expand their economic range through selling paper materials, such as 江南 duiring Sung, specially 徽州 池州 紹興 and so on developed positively The paper for printing, painting and calligraphy A large number of painting on the book was began from Song Dynasty, the paint-book was made of bark paper( 皮紙 ). inside with the text. poetry( 詩箋 ). fashionable style at that time 79. These books had some paintings mixed Song people liked tailor-made paper for letterform ( 信箋 ) and There were many type of tailor-made paper depended on the The common reading materials were made of bamboo paper, or people used bamboo paper for writing, but for painting people used bark paper much more. 80 In Song-Yuan, the paper of printing book was thinner no matter made of bark, hemp or bamboo paper. This is because Chinese printed on one side paper then folded up to become one page, finally many pages were bound into a book. (For example, if one sheet of A4 paper was printed on, it would be folded in half to become 2 pages in the book two one-sided prints. ) of book was thick, the volume of book increased in size and the book cost also increased. 81 If the paper 4-5 The efficient making paper pulp technology in Song-Yuan High quality paper appeared because of one reason was an new machine was used in Song-Yuan, the new machine was 水碓 see figures below. There was many areas with natural water resource in papermaking places of south China. Song-Yuan People made 水碓 move through water power to pound the paper pulp. The water-powered wheel drove an axil which caused hammers to strike and recoil to pound paper pulp. Chinese created using 水碓 to pound paper pulp, actually 水碓 appeared during Han Dynasty, but was used for pounding rice. In Song-Yuan 水碓 was applied to large-scale papermaking. It can save the manpower and keep the quality of pounding being equal 斯波義信,(1968),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP198, 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P212 16

19 <figure 83 > <figure 84 > 4-6 Varieties of reprocessed paper( 加工紙 ) and famous paper Reprocessed paper in Song dynasty was more progressive than before, and we can start our discussion from coloring paper. Yellow paper was accustomed to be used in Song because official documents were produced on yellow paper. It was the same that yellow paper was also used when religion books were transcribed or printed with the former dynasties. But there were differences between pre-song and Song yellow paper. In Song people used 黃蘗 (a plant who s extract was applied to the pages of the book) for mothproofing. Another difference was that government 83 潘吉星,(1998),P213 This picture is from the book 農書, but shows a device from Song-Yuan. 84 陸敬嚴等,(2000),P245 17

20 books were stamped with an official red seal to indicate they were government books, so to avoid theft of books 謝公十色箋 There were also other colors of paper besides yellow paper, for example, the famous 謝公箋 in Song dynasty. The name of 謝公 (Lord Xie) is 謝景初 (Xie Jingchu personal name), and he was an official in Song dynasty( ). He designed a colored paper with ten different colors and named it as 十色信箋. This 十色信箋 was very popular, and this kind of paper was mentioned by the book 蜀箋譜 which was written in Yuan dynasty 金栗藏經紙 Two types of paper 硬黃 and 硬白 had existed in Tang times. In Song 硬黃 硬白紙 were well developed, and were called 黃 白經箋 or 黃 白蠟經箋, respectively in Song. There was a temple, 金栗寺 during Northern Song. Because the paper for printing Buddhistic classics in 金栗寺 needed mothproofing, they used 黃蘗汁 to processed the paper. It was pest-resistant and waterproof, called 金栗箋 or 藏經紙 which was a kind of famous paper in Song The golden paper ( 金花紙 ) and the water-brushed paper( 水紋紙 ) in Song were called 砑花紙 and 魚子箋 In Tang there was a type of paper called golden paper ( 金花紙 ), which was a high-quality paper sprinkled on top with gold powder. The differences of golden paper among Song and early times were first that Song s golden paper made of bamboo paper. Second, small decorative pop-out (or pop-in) objects were placed on the paper (i.e. a small flower). These were innovations on papermaking material and technical art. 87 In Tang there was a type of paper called 水紋紙. (water-brushed paper). writing letter. The water-brushed paper( 水紋紙 ) in Song was called 魚子箋 was used on It in Song was different from early times that beside the brightly water ripple, there were also mountain, river, tree, or animal figures (decorative water-marks) 潘吉星,(1998),P 葛金芳,(1991),P 葛金芳,(1991),P 葛金芳,(1991),P218 18

21 <figure 89 > 4-7 Paper products There were paper-clothes, paper-quilt, and paper-pillow widespread application in people s daily life. 90 Furthermore, there also were paper-umbrella, paper-lantern, and paper window ( 紙糊窗格 ) which were processed for waterproofing. 91 In addition, paper-fan, paper-kite, paper-card, paper-doll, and paper art carvings were popular in Song. Paper-fan was common in Song, there were various type of paper-fans and many paper-fan stores on the street. 92 Shadow show( 影戲 ) was popular in Song, dolls was made of paper or bark to be colored. 走馬燈 appeared during Song which was that putting paper-doll or animal then following some scientific principles to make the paper-doll or animal move. While emblazing the lantern, the paper-doll or animal circled around the lantern, and the paper-doll or paper-animal shadow cast on the lantern, paper-doll or paper-animal looking like running. 93 A kind of special paper was firework paper in Song. Gunpowder 89 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P208 漆俠,(1988),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP

22 developed well in Song and often set off fireworks when new year or major festivals. Paper was used in producing fireworks for festivals, paper fuses ( 引線 ) were used. Layers of paper were used to make tubes, in which gunpowder was placed for fireworks. 94 Toilet paper also was widespread used in people s daily life Paper money The origins of paper money Chinese made use of paper-like money before official large-scale use of paper money. For instance both white-deerskin money ( 白鹿皮幣 )of Western Han Dynasty and 飛錢 of Tang Dynasty possessed paper money character. 96 White-deerskin money ( 白鹿皮幣 )of Western Han Dynasty was not circulated officially or widely, but it s a beginning of Chinese paper money. But in 119 BC an official named 張湯 recommended monetary reforms to 漢武帝 that this form of currency, and others, should circulated widely. 97 飛錢 of Tang Dynasty was draft, but it is difficult to know how widely it was used at that time (there is little evidence on this topic). 98 There were some factors promoted Chinese paper money development. First, the commerce developed well during Song Dynasty, people needed more and facile currencies. The second, China divided from many different currency zones from Five Dynasties. People used different currencies depended on different places and did not be permitted to transport the money to leave country. money could prevent from people taking coins out the country. So using paper The third, many places of China circulated the iron money of great volume but small value. It s inconvenient to carry. The fourth, Song government spent lots money on military expense to prevent from being aggressed and threatened by the other militaries which resulted in financial difficulty, the government had to make up the expenditure through releasing currency. 99 During Five Dynasties paper money circulated in China. Example of 契劵指垛, during 楚國馬殷年間 ( ) people had used 契券 (a kind ticket for exchange) to trade with warehouse( 垛 ) which stored up commodities. 四川 was the first place using exchange ticket. The monetary system of 四川 was different to 94 潘吉星,(1998),PP 斯波義信,(1968),P 彭信威,(1958),P 彭信威,(1958),P 彭信威,(1958),P 彭信威,(1958),P428 20

23 others from early times, specially during Five Dynasties, there was a big gap on price among 四川 and other provinces. In early Song Dynasty, the major currency was iron money in 四川. Due to the value of iron money was small and carrying iron money was inconvenient, in Song the paper money gradually appeared in 四川 Paper money in Song An important use of paper was printing paper money in Song. We can divide Northern Song Dynasty's paper money( 交子 ) development into three phases: 1. In the free-issue phase. It was printed to replace iron money to circulate by common people In rich merchants issue phase. During 宋真宗 (1011) several rich merchants of 四川 organized the bank for printing and issue paper money( 交子 ) because the iron money was inconvenient to trade at that time. Each Paper money( 交子 ) was printed with two colors. 102 perfect than the first stage. The paper money form in this stage was more There were figures and a wooden house on each paper money, beside they must use paper to print. In Northern and Southern Song they also used woodblock or bronze plate for printing both 交子 and 會子 In government administration phase. After those rich merchants bankrupting, 交子 could not cash result in many litigations, so that during 宋仁宗 (1023) the government administered this business which set up 交子務 in Sichuan to issue local paper money, the currency value from 1 貫 to 10 貫, was similar to check. 104 After a period of time, paper money came to be printed in fixed a quantity (e.g. 100,000 notes in a print run). expiration dates of two or three years. Paper money was issued with And the state also regularly collected old notes. But the government in order to make up the financial debt, over issued 交子, resulted in the inflation. 105 From 大觀元年 (1107), (which was the year of the 43 rd printing or issue of 交 子 ), 交子 changed name to 錢引. Each 錢引 valued 1 貫 to 500 貫, and had a 3 years expiration. 錢引 was covered six kind of colors marks, therefore 錢引 100 彭信威,(1958),P 彭信威,(1958),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 彭信威,(1958),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 彭信威,(1958),P430 潘吉星,(1998),P205 戴家璋,(1994),P 潘吉星,(1998),P205 戴家璋,(1994),P131 21

24 was multi-colored paper money. 106 see figure below. It s the beginning of multicolor printing. 107 <figure 108 > In Southern Song Dynasty, figure below. there were several businessmen issued 會子 - see During 紹興年 (1160) the government administered it, the value of 會子 was 1 貫 500 文 300 文 200 文,each with a 3 years expiration date, and also multi-colored paper money. In addition, the government promulgated " 偽造 會子法 ", if the person who forged paper money would be sentenced to behead, and the reporting person can get reward. 109 complete system for releasing paper money. The Song Dynasty had set of a There were many artisans in the papermaking bureau to make paper money, the scale was very big. bureau had 204 artisans, which another had 1200 artisans. the forge proof technology paper, except the minorities of northern China. One sub In addition, they had The general paper money all was printed on bark Because the papermaking quantity were few in northern China, the minorities used expired paper money to make new paper money 潘吉星,(1998),P205 戴家璋,(1994),P 彭信威,(1958),P 彭信威,(1958), 圖版 潘吉星,(1998),P205 戴家璋,(1994),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P206 22

25 <figure 112 > 112 彭信威,(1958), 圖版 59 23

26 II Printing 1. The origins of printing We can see from the ancient seal and stamp, the seals appeared in Qin Dynasty, and the seals was quite common during Qin and Han Dynasties. 113 Stone inscriptions were appeared to record important events in Qin and Han Dynasties. After Han Dynasty, the carving stones were rectangular and thick flagstone much, this kind of shape would be easy to carve characters and advantageous for reading. 114 The most famous stone inscriptions in history are those of the Xiping Stone Classics - see figure below. This carving was begun in A.D.175 and was completed in A.D.183. The 7 classics - 易經 尚書 詩經 禮記 春秋 公羊傳 論語 - were inscribed, totaling more than 200,000 chrarcters. 115 Afterwards, when people had the paper but did not have the printing method, they hand copied from a book. It is inconvenient, troublesome and wasting time to transcribe characters with a hand on the paper. Therefore people urgent need new duplication method, then carves printing to be able to meet such need. 116 Many scholars believe printing technique originally appeared approximately in the 7 th century (around Sui or Tang). 117 <figure 118 > 2. The invention of woodblock printing and printing in Tang ( ) and Five Dynasties ( ) We have mentioned in chapter 3 that the 科舉制度 and religious activities promoted the development of printing. During Sui and early Tang, it s a transition 113 潘吉星,(1998),P285 汪 聞,(1999),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P303 汪 聞,(1999),P 潘吉星,(1998),P289 24

27 period between printing and hand copied books, but the main type of books was hand copied book. There were many Buddhistic printing in early and late Tang, such as 陀羅尼經 - a Buddhistic classic, the earliest one-sided page print. 119 In addition, Tang s government managed some financial affairs by woodblock printing, such as 印紙 and 私簿 in middle Tang, which recorded financial affairs. And 飛錢 in Tang was also a kind of print Printing in late Tang The woodblock printing technology developed well in late Tang, we can see that from the Buddhistic printing, 金剛經 - see figure below, which was printed in 咸通九年 (868). The age and exquisite illustrations were printed on 金剛經. It showed that the woodblock printing technology achieved the mature degree. 121 Diversification was the characteristic of printing material in late Tang. There were many Buddhism printings, for example, the printing house, 過家, in 四川成 都, which printed many good quality Buddhistic printings, such as 金剛經 and 陀 羅尼咒經 (which was printed first in middle Tang). The contents of two books were less than other classics, using less woodblock to engrave, so the cost was low. Because of the low cost and general preference resulted in the two books was popular on the market. 122 Many language reference books appeared, such as dictionary and sound( 音韻 ) books. There were also many books about 風水, fortune-telling and calendar almanac appeared. permit people to print calendar almanacs. Actually the government did not Because of the demand, some business men continued printed calendar almanacs for profit to trade in a market in private, so the calendar almanacs had flooded in the market before the government issued calendar almanacs in Chinese New year. 123 Because the ancients studied 小學 (a classic book) since childhood, which was about lexicon, sound, and explaining words, this kind of book became popular commodities, which was promoted to people by printing stores. popular as the language reference books. 124 Moreover the 風水 and fortune-telling were also as 119 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1998),PP

28 <figure 125 > 2-4 Printing in Five Dynasties Five Dynasties was an important phase in woodblock printing. quantity and types were more than Tang. Quality, Moreover the government promoted the printing, and the types of printing were various, such as Confucian books, Taoist books, and other books on philosophy and thought. 126 In Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom period, we can see the different advantages between northern and southern China from this phase in printing. Due to lots of papermaking materials and good artisans in southern China, southern China had the advantage in papermaking. Based on the excellent engrave (block carving) tradition and engravers, so northern China had the printing advantage. In addition, 四川 had good background of printing and papermaking from early times, caused that it also had the advantages of printing and papermaking. papermaking. 127 Therefore it s famous on both printing and Because of the good printing development in 成都 during the period of 吴國和 125 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P356 26

29 前蜀, inspired 後唐 (923~936) 的宰相, 馮道 (person s name) and other officials to petition to the 後唐的 National Academy( 國子監 ) to print the 儒家 s classic - 九經. The printing period of 九經 was including four dynasties ( 後唐 後晉 後漢 後周 ). 128 Firstly, 5 or 6 scripture scholars went to 長安, studied the scripture which carved on stone, then copied and collated. Finally, they took the hand copied to 洛 陽, added contemporary commentary to the ancient text. After finalized a manuscript writes, other people wrote the content on the paper, block carving artisans according to the content to carve the scripture on woodblock, after checking, the woodblocks the printing began. 129 It s a beginning that the official used main method - printing to print non-religion books. 130 It meant the government and high social classes accepted popular printing technology in the folk to disseminate the legitimate 儒家思想. The government printed classics to let common people read high-quality printed reading material. Therefore, it would promote 後唐的 culture and education, and so did 後唐的 status and prestige. 131 There was a 節度使, 曹元忠, in 後晉, he advocated Buddhism, and organized the engraving and printing of a large of number of Buddha portraits in Dunhuang ( 敦煌 ). The layout was characterized by printing the drawing in the upper part of the page and the text in the lower part. 132 They used the hemp paper to print Buddha portraits, which also was made in Dunhuang ( 敦煌 ). Therefore Dunhuang ( 敦煌 ) had become another famous papermaking and the printing place Printing in Ten Kingdoms Period 前蜀 is the papermaking and the printing advanced area in Ten Kingdoms, because it established in 四川 where printing industry developed well in Tang Dynasty. In 後蜀, the printing industry was as famous as it in Tang. Many kind of reading materials all were printed, such as massive religious printings, literary printing, even also calendar almanac. During 後蜀, there was a 宰相, 毋昭裔 (person s name), devoted to print enterprise. When he was young, he was very poor, so wanted to borrow the book from his friend but was rejected. Therefore, when he had the ability, he printed many books to provide people to read. While he was a 宰 相 in 後蜀, organized capital to engrave and print 3 reference books - 文選 初學 128 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP

30 記 白氏六帖. Almost every student in 後蜀 had these three reference books Printing in the Song Dynasty ( ) This was the important phase in the printing history, based on Tang Dynasty's printing foundation, Song Dynasty's woodblock printing was more mature. movable type printing was invented in Northern Song Dynasty. print, there also was multi-color print. breakthrough appeared. The Besides single-color During Song in the book bind aspect, a new One sided book binding appeared as opposed to the previous long page, accordion type of binding. (Section 3.5, explains this in more detail). In Song, the printing was divided into government printing, factory printing, and private printing. 135 The content of printing expanded into many kind of knowledge. The multitudinous type books appeared The types of published book were of a wide variety In Song, besides lots of Confucian books, historiographies and philology books, the government also block carved/printed Buddhist classics. 137 For instance, in early Northern Song 太祖開保四年 (971), the most arduous block carving/printing project was carving/printing Buddhist sutra - 大藏經 in 成都, which consisted of 1076 volumes and 5048 chapters, the carving/printing period was 12 years, used 130,000 blocks. The scale of printing Buddhist scriptures in the Song was far greater than that of the previous dynasties. 138 In Southern Song(1132), someone carved/printed one Buddhist scripture in 湖洲 which consisted of 5,400 chapters, and completed it in one year. We can see that there were many block carving artisans and mature woodblock printing technology in Song. Usually, most books in the market were completed needing 120~160 persons to block carving. 139 Taoist books also were block carved/printed in Song, for example, 萬壽道藏 was printed in 福建 during 年, consisted of 540 volumes and 5481 chapters. In song, there were many science and medical books were printed, such as 九章算術 (math book) 傷 寒論 脈經 本草圖經 (all medical books), 武經總要 (military books) and 四時纂要 (agriculture books),etc. Song people can get these books 134 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 杜石然等,(1982),P5 137 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 杜石然等,(1982),P19 28

31 conveniently. 140 Many books were related history, philosophy, geography, prose, novel, fortune-telling, astrology, music, art and so on. books that they expected to find. Song people had any type Printing books in Song were comprehensive, Song people unfold the culture and knowledge of pervious dynasties through woodblock printing Government printing and private printing flourished in Song Government printing In Song, the central organization in charge of printing was the National Academy( 國子監 ). The printing plates was printed by the National Academy( 國子 監 ), the quality and quantity was good and became good example for publication enterprise. The National Academy( 國子監 ) sold printing books was not for profit, only took cost charge from customers. Local governments promoted printing activities and printed a large number of books, resulted in promoting Song s woodblock printing, making Song become the prime period of woodblock printing. 142 During Song, local government printing many books, like 南宋的 資治通鑑 ( historical records) 禮記正義 (Confucian book) and so on Private printing In Song private printing businesses were set up at numerous places including school and temple as well as in markets and homes. Household printing was mainly organized capital by literati and officialdom to block carve/print books. School printing was organized capital to block carve/print books by private school which was set up by literati. The amount of books which was printed by school was few but the quality was good. It indicated that the studied climate was popular. 144 Printshop was set up by carving/printing business man for profit which produced main popular read materials in the market, and the types of read materials were of a wide variety. In order to reduce the cost, printshop used bamboo paper to print and page layout was compact, typeface was smaller, but the quality was not bad. For instance, in Song, 萬卷堂 (a printshop name) was a famous printshop in Fujian( 福建 ), the founder, 余仁仲 (a person s name) was a 進士. He collected and printed many books, so he was a 140 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),PP 潘吉星,(1998),P 潘吉星,(1998),P370 29