AUTHOR S NOTE ON USAGE

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3 AUTHOR S NOTE ON USAGE Hello, reader! This year s art curriculum brings you through a broad, and necessarily limited, sweep of Indian art throughout history, from long before it became known as India as such to its post-colonial grappling with the idea of India as a nation. The study of art here is as much about the works themselves as it is about the context and meaning in which they can be situated. India s long history of trade and exchange on a global scale means that its cultural production cannot be divorced from their influences, whether it be the early Roman artists who produced Kushan coins or the long-lasting scars of colonial oppression. Throughout this guide, as in every other Power Guide, will be bolded terms that represent key terms whose definitions you should know. All these terms can be found in the second section of this guide, the Power Lists. Some of these terms may appear in the Power Tables instead for convenience of presentation. Footnotes come in several forms. Plain ones provide contextual information to clarify areas in the guide that may be confusing. Enrichment facts, as the name suggests, are nuggets of extra information probably interesting to no one but myself. I have reserved my uninvited commentary on the guide for signed footnotes. -Jac

4 CURRICULUM OVERVIEW This year s curriculum places a particular emphasis on Sections II and IV, Buddhist and Hindu and colonial-era art and architecture, with both taking up 25% of the curriculum. However, as you will see in the practice test later, Sections III and V should not be overlooked despite only counting for 15% each. Indo-Islamic art and post-colonial art form an integral part of India s art history, and Section IV in particular can only be fully understood with a good grasp of its preceding Mughal period. Percentage 15% 20% 25% 25% Section I Section II Section III Section IV Section V 15% As the guide notes at the outset of section II, in quoting T. Richard Blurton, periodization of Indian art particularly before the 1800s is necessarily artificial, whether you are dividing it by religion, region, or time period. The guide distinguishes Buddhist and Hindu art from art produced under the Muslim dynasties of India, but the purposes and underlying messages of art from both periods share many similarities: an emphasis on architecture dedicated to higher beings, a respect for royal authority, and an emphasis on symbolic representation whether in the canon of proportions of the Buddha or the arrangement of buildings in the Taj Mahal complex. If you are short of time, focus on the overarching trends of Indian art rather than the fine details of each artwork, with a special emphasis on the roots of Indian art before the tenth century and the impact of colonialism on indigenous art. As always, this Power Guide provides you with a comprehensive timeline and list of key terms at the very end that will carry you through your prep and all the way to Alaska.

5 This section introduces basic elements of art, providing definitions for many of the terms you will encounter later in this guide. According to the USAD outline, 10 questions (20%) should come from Section I 6 questions (12%) come from Section I on the USAD Art Practice Test This subsection of Section I covers pgs of the USAD Art Resource Elements of Art Definition Formal analysis studies the visual qualities of an artwork, or the elements of art Line Line forms the most fundamental element of art Fingers, pencils, paint, or other tools can create it on a surface It formally refers to a point s path through space Examples include the border between colors and edges of objects Lines may differ in direction or several other aspects Variable Weight Length Visibility Width Width uniformity Range Hard-soft Long-short Bold-faint Thick-thin Consistent-uneven Implied line refers to non-solid lines such as paths of dots or dashes Footprints in sand or snow exemplify implied lines In art, lines may represent emotions or ideas Horizontal and vertical lines create stability and stasis Vertical lines draw the viewer s eye upward Lofty arched ceilings in medieval churches thereby create a sense of spiritual wonder Horizontal lines appear peaceful, while curved or jagged lines seem active All artists employ lines, particularly in drawing and printmaking Shape and form Art uses three-dimensional forms and two-dimensional shapes Forms include pyramids, cubes, architecture, and sculptures Shapes include triangles, squares, paintings, and drawings

6 Shading, foreshortening 1, and perspective can make a shape appear threedimensional Shapes can be described as geometric or organic From mathematics Precise, regular Add order and stability From nature Freeform, irregular Add movement and rhythm Space Space describes the arrangement of positive and negative space in an artwork Positive space refers to subjects in a composition, also known as the figure Negative space appears around figures or in the open space inside Two-dimensional artists use many techniques to create perspective Perspective refers to the impression of depth Shading or highlighting contours imitates the effects of light on forms Contours refer to the visible edges of objects Aerial perspective, or atmospheric perspective, emulates the visual effects of fog, smoke, and airborne particles It uses lighter, more neutral colors to change distant figures appearance A lower degree of contrast in color or shade mimics distance Mathematical linear perspective originated during the Renaissance This approach remains the most well-known perspective technique for its realism Multiple lines terminate at the same point on the horizon Highways, railroads, and fence posts stretching into the distance show this approach Linear perspective artists first place a vanishing point on the horizon where lines converge Afterwards, they carefully add lines that lead away from the vanishing point Checkerboard floors popular in Renaissance interior scenes use linear perspective Parallel horizontal lines intersect vertical lines converging towards a distant wall, even though the same scene in real life would form a regular grid It appears in Renaissance artist Pietro Perugino s fresco in the Sistine Chapel ( ) The Renaissance entered Rome partly because of Perugino s example Perspective Technique Less Distant Figures Distant Figures Overlapping In front In back Picture plane location Lower in picture Higher in picture Size Larger Smaller Detail More detailed Less detailed Color Color, or hue, constitutes a potent element of art 1 Foreshortening shortens lines to create an illusion of depth.

7 All colors derive from a combination of the primary colors: red, yellow, and blue Two primary colors produce one of the three secondary colors A secondary color and a primary color produce one of the six tertiary colors In the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac Newton made breakthroughs in color science The eighteenth century color wheel organized primary, secondary, and tertiary hues into 12 colors It places comple mentary colors opposite each other Value quantifies the tint (lightness) or shade (darkness) of gray or a hue Different values alter the mood of an artwork A color s value ranges between white and black Mixing red and white gives lighter red or pink Combining red and black makes darker red or brown The colors black and white are neutrals, not hues A spectrum of grays results from mixing them Intensity labels a color s brightness or purity Unmixed primary colors have the highest intensity Adding black, gray, or a complementary color reduces intensity Mixing complementary colors creates dull brown In the nineteenth century, scientists formulated color relativity Colors appear more or less intense depending on other colors in their proximity Complementary colors induce brighter intensity Adjacent colors on the wheel simulate darker intensity Due to color relativity, colors lack a fixed quality Color schemes may enhance mood or visual effects The configuration of warm color and cool color schemes vary between cultures In western art, warm colors encompass red, orange, and yellow Warm colors recall heat, fire, the sun, or dry summer grass Cool colors refer to green, blue, and violet Blue, green, and violet hues echo coolness, forests, mountain lakes, and snow

8 These color schemes also alter space in an artwork Objects featuring warm colors appear to move towards the viewer and vice versa A combination of warm and cool colors creates dynamism, or movement Artists select colors based on the choice to use local color, optical color, or arbitrary color Arbitrary color s popularity skyrocketed in art during the 20 th century Local Color Optical Color Arbitrary Color Normal daylight No distance effects or reflections Special lighting e.g. moonlight or candlelight Reflects emotions or aesthetic taste Texture Texture describes the surface feel of an object The human brain retains new tactile memories Upon viewing a previously experienced texture, humans form expectations Artists distinguish between tangible actual texture or imaginary visual textures Three-dimensional artworks have actual texture, such as additions to ceramics or collage objects Two-dimensional artworks rely on visual texture, such as realistic surfaces shown in paintings Patterns of lines or shapes mimic texture Contrasts of light and dark convey rough texture Consistent lighting emulates smooth texture Brushstrokes may add actual texture to a painting Principles of Composition Composition and rhythm An artist s usage of the elements of art determines her composition In 2D art, composition occurs on the picture plane 3D composition organizes elements of art in space More traditional artworks tend to observe the elements of art and principles of composition Several modern artistic styles reject these concepts Movements or patterns in an artwork create rhythm These patterns repeat one of the elements of art, such as line, shape, color, or texture Motif refers to the element repeated in the pattern Quilts and checkerboards exemplify regular grid patterns consisting of many squares Artists create either smooth or dynamic, variable rhythms to direct the path of the viewer s eye Balance and contrast Balance describes the arrangement of visual weight in an artwork The most simple type, symmetrical balance, repeats elements on either side of a central axis Either a horizontal or vertical line can be the central axis Architects tend to use symmetrical balance

9 Many buildings have equal columns and windows on either side of a central entrance Approximate symmetry avoids the monotony and rigidity of pure symmetry Slightly different elements on either side of the axis create approximate symmetry Changes in color, detail, position, or other aspects distinguish these elements The human face features approximate symmetry Asymmetrical balance unites dissimilar objects This method is more complex than symmetrical balance but versatile A lighter and heavier person on a seesaw exemplify it To balance the seesaw, the heavier person must sit closer to the center Similar positioning of large and small objects also creates asymmetrical balance Multiple contrasting instances of an element of art create visual interest The element at the focal point stands out and draws a viewer s eye The focal point may present an artwork s meaning Proportion and scale Proportion concerns the relative sizes of parts of an artwork Human scale determines our sense of proportion 2,500 years ago, Classical Greek sculptors standardized realistic human proportions Ancient Greeks measured everything using the human figure, even building proportions Greeks placed the human figure at 7.5 heads tall and had specific facial measurements Corners of eyes Nose Bottom of lips Halfway between Chin and top of head Chin and corners of eyes Chin and bottom of nose Many artists modify proportions to suit new ideals of beauty Exaggerated or distorted proportions also alter an artwork s overall effect Scale refers to an element s size relative to the entire work, or the work s entire size The large scale of the Sistine Chapel s ceiling or the small scale of details in miniature paintings attract attention Artists decide the scale of their artwork based on its location and purpose Two-Dimensional Art Definition Two-dimensional artworks have height and width, but not depth It includes drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and some mixed media These artworks exist on a picture plane Drawing conclusions Drawing uses the element of line and defines the most fundamental art process Lines vary with different drawing mediums Common mediums include pencil, ink or felt-tip pens, charcoal, and crayon Charcoal or pencil artists apply more or less pressure to create darker or lighter values

10 Hard pencils produce thin and light lines Soft pencils make thick lines and may create lighter or very dark values Applied lightly, charcoal s soft point leaves faint lines that expose the surface below Pen and ink artists can change the value of their ink by adding water Undiluted ink appears opaque, while water-down ink forms a transparent wash Artists may mix different drawing mediums to change the shading of lines Unlike black drawing media, pastels and colored pencils generate colorful lines Black and colored mediums use identical techniques Artists, however, must contemplate the effects of color Pastels, or soft sticks of color, entered the art world in the eighteenth century Portraitists favor pastel as it can be easily blended into subtle tints or shades However, it smears easily and can be very fragile Many artists spray fixatives to strengthen the bonds of the pastel Colored pencils do not smear as often as pastels Pastel and colored pencil artists draw multiple layers to mix colors Most modern artists draw on paper Many variations of paper exist, including manufactured and handmade versions Smooth, rough, white, and colorful paper are all commercially available Shading techniques alter the value of a drawing Hatching adds shade using parallel lines Crosshatching uses crisscrossing lines Hatching and crosshatching add the illusion of form In stippling, massed dots provide shade Dense dots result in darker shades while sparse dots make lighter shades Printmaking Prints can be made in several ways Primary printmaking processes Relief prints Intaglio prints Lithographs Screen prints Machines supplement the two-dimensional printmaking techniques of copying artworks Printmaking technology can yield multiple copies, making prints cheaper than paintings Many low-cost prints bearing social protests circulated during the Mexican Revolution The fifteenth century invention of the printing press allowed the mass production of books Initially, the artist creates the original image on a printing plate, or matrix After ink saturates this image, paper or another material copies the matrix design

11 Relief printmaking Remove out part of the matrix with woodcarving/ linoleum knives, or gouges A plate of wood, linoleum, or another material may act as the matrix Roll a brayer over the plate, inking the relief area Place the matrix and paper into a press or use a burnisher 2 to rub the paper onto the matrix Inked area colors the paper, creating a copy of the plate image Etching Incise lines on the wax or varnish coat of a metal plate, exposing the positive space Immerse plate in acid, etching away the exposed metal Shorter exposure to acid creates lighter lines Remove surplus wax or varnish; squeeze ink into the etched areas and wipe ink off relief space Use press to force paper into inked grooves Inked area protrudes from surface to create a form Cuts away negative space (white) and inks the positive space (black) that stands out in relief Removes positive space (white), forces ink into the space, and removes ink from negative space (black) Etching forms a type of intaglio printmaking It follows the opposite approach of relief printmaking The process centers on the element of line In intaglio engraving, the artist carves lines into the surface of a wood or soft metal plate In lithography, the artist uses a waxy pencil or crayon to outline the image on the printing plate A stone, zinc, or aluminum plate may serve as the matrix The lithographer solidifies the greasy image and then adds water to the plate Oil resists water, so inking the matrix only saturates the greasy positive space A press forces the inked area onto paper, creating a copy of the image Lithography is a complex and arduous task but can be carried out by anyone who can draw Woodcutters and engravers need professional training Clay Minerals Most T-shirt designers use screen printing, or silkscreening Pigment Gemstones Plant/ insect materials The artist uses an image stencil to ink silk or another synthetic fabric stretched across a frame A squeegee forces ink through holes (representing positive space) in the stencil, recreating the image on the fabric or paper Binder Solvent Wax Egg yolk Linseed oil Water Oil 2 Remember the difference between "brayer" and "burnisher" these two words frequently appear in USAD Art Exams.

12 Painting The ingredients of pigments, binders, and solvents produce paint Artists grind natural or synthetic materials into powder to yield pigments A binder synthesizes pigment grains and the paint surface Solvents adjust paint s consistency or drying time Fresco painting for walls or ceilings dates back thousands of years In a buon fresco (true fresco), artists apply a mixture of pure pigment and water to wet plaster covering the wall or ceiling Paint binds to wet plaster permanently, so artists cannot make changes The fresco secco technique uses dried plaster instead of wet plaster The Roman ruins of Pompeii and medieval as well as Renaissance churches contain frescoes The early 20 th century Mexican muralist Diego Rivera created them in Mexico and the United States Oil paint gained popularity in the fifteenth century and remains the most common type of paint Many artists favor oil paint s versatility and easy blending Oil paints dry very slowly, allowing an artist to blend paints on the actual artwork This feature also permits the artist to continue to work on a piece for weeks Thinned oil paint creates transparent or semi-transparent layers called glazes Glazes tweak the color of an artwork Impasto paintings feature lumps of thickly applied paint Before oil paint, most artists employed water-based tempera Tempera has been used throughout history and is common in elementary schools today Egg serves as the binder in traditional tempera Due to the quick drying time, tempera artists must blend colors before painting Tempera s restriction to light or dark tones prevents natural depictions Tempera also requires a high level of skill and cannot recreate the effect of oil paint glazes Ancient tempera paintings, however, show its advantages of clarity, brilliance, and durability Water-based gouache paint resembles school-quality tempera but offers improved paint quality Many designers and fine artists prefer gouache for its bright colors and precision Watercolor paint lacks the consistency of gouache but dries faster This transparent medium is the most popular water-based paint The color of the underlying paper surface strongly affects watercolor s value Instead of mixing in white paint to create tints, most watercolor artists add water In watercolor painting, lighter colors, background areas, and broad spaces come first Darker colors, foreground areas, and detailed spaces come last Watercolor requires careful planning and practice because mistakes can easily ruin a work Acrylic paint combines synthetic materials, plastics, and polymers This highly versatile medium was invented after World War II Compared to oil paint, acrylic dries faster and creates layers more easily Acrylic, however, lacks the fine distinctions possible with oil paint

13 Many artists allergic to oil paint and turpentine turn to acrylic paint Wax-based encaustic paint identified tomb markers in ancient Egypt These encaustic markers still survive, proving encaustic s durability Hot irons fuse colored molten wax to a surface, creating encaustic Some modern painters have revived encaustic Photography The advent of photography occurred in the mid-nineteenth century, initially as a documentary tool Artists initially tried to imitate photographic realism, later embracing abstraction instead The fine art world disregarded photography and film until the 20 th century New technologies constantly change photography Three-Dimensional Art Definition Three-dimensional art includes sculpture, architecture, mixed media, and environmental art These artworks exist in space and have the additional attribute of depth Sculpture Visibility distinguishes the two types of sculpture: freestanding and relief Freestanding, or in the round, sculptures can be seen from all angles Examples include the Venus de Milo or Michelangelo s Pieta Relief sculptures project from a carrier surface, such as doors, sarcophagi, altars, or walls They can be seen only from a limited range Sculptors attach the cast metal work to the carrier surface or carve the work out of the carrier surface s stone or wood Artists may craft high relief or low relief (bas relief) sculptures High relief sculptures protrude further from the surface than low relief sculptures All sculptures come from four basic methods The subtractive approach of carving removes original material The artist uses chisels, hammers, and files to flesh out her stone or wood artwork Additive modeling uses a soft, pliable material such as clay, wax, plaster, or papiermâché A sculptor adds material to or shapes the surface Casting creates copies, or casts, of an unfired clay or wax sculpture The artist encloses the sculpture in plaster, which hardens into a mold

14 Sculptors can pour materials such as plaster and metal into the mold to copy the piece Synthetic materials such as plastic or polyester resins recently became available for casting Construction involves various methods such as sculpting metal Welded pieces of sheet metal or bent wire may create a metal sculpture Artists also combine paper, board, wood, or found objects to create sculptures In mobile sculptures, the entire sculpture or parts of the sculpture are movable Alexander Calder s ( ) mobiles hang elements from wires that move with wind Other artists use motors, pulleys, ropes, pumps, and other machines Architecture Architecture encompasses artistic and scientific building design Early architects used local materials such as sticks, mud, grass, animal skins, wood, or ice depending on the climate Brick and stone later became common building materials Post-and-lintel construction remains a valuable architectural development Two vertical posts support one horizontal crosspiece, or lintel The Greek Parthenon features post-and-lintel construction Today, architects favor steel and wood when using this method The arch, another crucial invention, supported wider and taller buildings Vaults 3 and domes are extensions of this same concept The Roman Colosseum utilizes vaults The Industrial Revolution introduced many new building materials and techniques The 1851 Crystal Palace s skeleton of thin iron rods supported a glass exterior This structure in London housed the World s Fair Wrought iron frameworks also enabled the Eiffel Tower in Paris Alongside concrete, steel remains the standard material for public buildings and apartments Residential architects frequently use brick and wood Some buildings use more aesthetic materials and designs, challenging geometric forms Antonio Gaudi ( ) designed organic-shaped cut stone buildings in Spain Gaudi s architecture lacks flat surfaces or straight lines Environmental art Environmental art, or Earthworks, redefines the space it occupies This medium overlaps with sculpture but distorts traditional ideas about art s function Environmental artists expanded art outside of art museums Large scale and impermanence characterize Earthworks Environmental artists can design their work to change over time Artists build their works on-site and involve the viewer in the work and installation Christo (1935 ) and his wife Jeanne-Claude ( ) popularized Earthworks This artist couple introduced the concept of packaging landscapes and architecture 3 Vaults are tunnels of arches.

15 Christo first worked in Europe but later created Earthworks on the international stage These ambitious projects took years or decades to complete Jeanne-Claude coordinated the creation of the Earthworks Environmental artists need to secure government and community approval Jeanne-Claude s role was just as important as Christo s job in designing the original projects Their dual creation process complicates the definition of traditional artist roles and genius Michael Heizer (1944-) and Robert Smithson ( ) also made Earthworks Other Art Forms Mixed media Mixed media artists combine several mediums and objects into two- or threedimensional art These found objects include materials such as fabric, rope, broken dishes, or newspaper Collage, a mixed media art form, involves any objects that adhere to a surface Symbolism, texture, color, or another aesthetic aspect unites the elements of a collage Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque established the collage as a fine art form c Assemblages of both two- and three-dimensional objects also qualify as mixed media Joseph Cornell s ( ) assemblages involve open boxes containing various objects that deliver symbolic and metaphoric messages Mixed media also appears in masks, costumes, and other art of nontraditional cultures For instance, grass, beads, and paint ornament several tribal masks Performance art Performance art combines theater and art, challenging the definition of art In this style, the artwork comprises the artist herself Like music, theater, and Earthworks, performance art lacks the permanence of traditional art Performance artists create unmarketable events open to interaction with viewers Several individuals see performance art as an escape from the commercialized art world The Guerilla Girls exemplify performance art aimed at social change This circle of artists first assembled in New York City in 1985 In public, Guerilla Girls don gorilla masks to remain anonymous Their guerilla-style posters, flyers, and speeches critique the white male-dominated art world Craft and folk art The disputed terms craft, folk art, and popular art apply to innumerable types of art forms

16 Attempts to beautify utilitarian objects such as pottery, jewelry, fibers, glass, and wood objects result in these art forms Human hands or simple tools shape pottery, which uses clay dug from the earth In creating a basic pot, artists press their thumbs into the center of a ball of clay Potters hold the outside of the clay ball and shape the interior with their fingers Pots created through this technique are often called pinch pots Coil pottery involves the palm of the hand kneading clay into long coils A stack of these coils forms the pot In slab pottery, liquid clay, or slip, binds together precisely measured slabs of clay Ancient cultures invented the modern potter s wheel As the wheel spins malleable clay, the artist shapes the pot using her hands The potter s wheel permits thin-walled pots and a large repertoire of shapes Thrown pottery refers to ceramics produced on a potter s wheel Potters can combine thrown pottery and hand-built pottery After the shaping and drying of pottery, artists place the clay in an oven called a kiln The heat completely dries the clay and chemically hardens the pot permanently Artists then color the pot s surface using glazes made from clay and pigment Another heating in the kiln melts these glazes Melted glazes form a glassy, waterproof surface, which is both artistic and useful Potters may use molded clay, carved decorations, or ornaments to adorn the surface Fiber arts encompass woven and nonwoven fibers Beautiful, nonwoven quilts can fulfill utilitarian or artistic purposes Weavers create clothes and other fabrics using a loom, braiding, knitting, or crocheting Archaeology indicates Middle Eastern civilizations invented glass in the 3 rd millennium BCE Glass production combines silica, raw materials, and possibly minerals to add color Sand, flint, or quartz creates silica Glassblowing let artists create vases, drinking glasses, perfume bottles, and other vessels Medieval art popularized stained glass Residential lampshades and windows also used stained glass by the late nineteenth century Wood is a common material in furniture, boxes, boats, and houses Northwest Coast Indians inscribe traditional designs in boxes and house boards Wooden boats functional and artistic designs vary between world cultures

17 This first section of the guide deals with the discipline of art history, such as its sources, methods, and key questions. It then provides an overview of major events in art history. According to the USAD outline, 10 questions (20%) should come from Section I 10 questions (20%) come from Section I on the USAD Art Practice Test This subsection of Section I covers pgs. 7-8 of the USAD Art Resource Overview of Art History Definition Art history explores an artwork s social, cultural, and economic contexts This field aims to interpret artworks and their original meaning Art historians ask many questions to achieve this understanding Art history s sister disciplines include anthropology, history, and sociology This field may also intersect with aesthetics and art criticism The philosophy of aesthetics explores beauty and its expression Art criticism informs the public of events in the art world through news media The first art historians only examined fine art Art historians now study a broad range of art An audience must appreciate the object and perceive it as art. Paintings Prints Drawings Sculpture Architecture The object may take any form endowed with special meaning and/or aesthetic value. Now includes Crafts: pottery, textiles, or body art Common household objects e.g. forks Objects sometimes not seen as art, e.g. movie posters Art historians accept that an artwork s meaning may change over time Historical context influences the interpretation New viewers perceptions may also change an artwork s meaning Chapel floor cleaner Pope Julius II 21 st century tourist No role in the work s creation Only enters the area to clean Perhaps illiterate Patron of the work Enjoys access to secluded area Views work as historical relic Understands history of Renaissance art Is just here for the gelato

18 Understands the work s theology However, all viewers can equally find the ceiling aesthetically pleasing on equal levels The level of access to an artwork affects interpretation of the work Other demographic factors affect each viewer s perception Social status, education, religion, race, and gender all influence it Pre-modern art history Art history became an academic field in the mid-eighteenth century Art commentary had evolved earlier with the work of several writers The ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23 79 CE) wrote Natural History His text analyzes art from both past eras and Pliny s time Renaissance author and artist Giorgio Vasari ( ) wrote The Lives of the Artists Vasari s book illustrates artists changing social roles in the Renaissance It also reveals how this period promoted the new idea of artistic genius German Enlightenment scholar Johann Joachim Winckelmann ( ) helped set the trend of context-centric art history eighteenth century Enlightenment philosophy shaped modern art history Art historians began to study parallels between human history and artistic styles Vasari s biography-centric art history lost favor Modern art historians continue this study of formal qualities in historical context Art historical studies follow a chronological order Each generation of artists influences successive generations Analysis methods and human history Most art historians employ two types of analysis to find an artwork s meaning Formal analysis involves the careful study of an artwork s visual elements These qualities may reveal the artist's intended meaning The elements of art describe a work s formal qualities Contextual analysis considers cultural, social, and economic influences Contextual analysis relates artworks to their time s literature, music, theater, and history Comparative study constitutes another fashionable art historical practice This technique can reveal stylistic changes between two eras caused by historical events Information sources Art historians practicing contextual analysis employ several types of sources Visual sources include preparatory sketches as well as other works by the same or rival artists Written sources can include exchanges between the artist and patron, commissionrelated documents, or art criticism

19 Other sources include interviews with artists and art viewers Anthropologists use participant observation to examine cultures creating artworks especially performance works in person Art historians practicing formal analysis prefer the original artwork to reproductions Even the best reproductions rarely capture every detail from the original Photographs cannot convey the scale and form of a sculpture Pictures also fail to capture a painting s texture and rich colors Photographs of artwork lack the original s transitions from light to dark and appear flatter Art historians sometimes study reproductions for practical reasons The original may be damaged or lost Extant artifacts from early cultures inform us about the origins of human civilization Most of these objects consist of stone, metal, fired clay, or another durable material Objects made of wood, fiber, or other perishable material often deteriorate Environmental factors also affect the preservation of artifacts For instance, Egypt s hot and dry desert preserves even frail materials like papyrus paper The sealing of Egyptian caves and tombs helps preserve even more artifacts West Africa s humid climate causes items made of perishable materials to decay quickly Exposed wood masks, for example, rarely survive for decades, let alone centuries Bias in art history Feminist historians point out the historical hegemony of male artists and patrons These feminists have amended art history to recognize female artists Feminist revisions opened the gates to a much broader art history This international and multicultural art history encompasses diverse viewpoints They include feminism, Marxism, and psychoanalysis Art history also includes visual culture, or modern media, such as advertisements and television Visual culture has altered traditional notions of artistic genius and masterpieces The story of Western art history hinges upon a narrative of history that sees Greek and Roman culture as the foundation of the Western world It thus privileges the development of naturalistic perspective and realism The art of other cultures has traditionally been excluded from art history because it does not follow the same trajectory of development It may not pursue aims that Western art history recognizes as constituting great art These qualities include realism and linear perspective It also partly results from the better level of preservation Art history s most prominent civilizations do not necessarily produce the best artworks Rather, art historians have simply discovered more artworks from these civilizations For instance, Egypt s environment favors art preservation Art historians have learned much about ancient Egypt through extant artifacts

20 Many ancient civilization centers in Central and South America remain unexplored Thieves and merchants have ruined many sites in their search for antiquities to sell The Stone Age Old Stone Age art Ancient cave paintings in southwestern France s Chauvet Cave date to c. 30,000 BCE Explorers uncovered these paintings in 1994 They date from the Old Stone Age, or Upper Paleolithic Period Chauvet Cave s artists used red ochre and black charcoal The paintings also feature a minimal use of yellow ochre These artists painted only animals, such as horses, rhinoceroses, lions, buffalo, and mammoths Later cave paintings elsewhere in France and Spain date from c. 15,000 to 10,000 BCE Altamira and Lascaux contain the most well-known of these paintings These caves contain colorful depictions of animals like horses, bears, lions, bison, and mammoths Outlines of human hands appear in Lascaux and Altamira, but not Chauvet Cave Early art historians deemed these cavemen s artworks random scribbles Detailed study, however, reveals a visual tradition connecting these drawings Skilled artists first created elegant outlines of charcoal Afterwards, they colored their figures with red and yellow ochre pigments The drawings original function remains uncertain They may have served in rituals such as hunting ceremonies Other renowned artworks include small stone female statuettes, especially Venus of Willendorf (Woman of Willendorf) (c. 28,000 to 25,000 B.C.E) It stands 4 1/8 inches tall The figure has minimal arms and lacks feet or facial details These aspects contradict the inflated female features Oversized bellies, breasts, and pubic areas distinguish these figures Scholars theorize that these statuettes may have been fertility figures The Middle Stone Age The Middle Stone Age refers to the Mesolithic Period During this era, a warmer climate lured cave dwellers outside Rock shelters housed a growing new culture Artwork on rock shelters in eastern Spain prove humans lived there These paintings resemble Paleolithic cave drawings in their skillful depiction of animals The existence of human figures distinguishes Mesolithic and Paleolithic art One figure at Lascaux is the only human to appear in cave paintings Its art shows humans, either alone or in groups, especially when hunting animals

21 Scholars debate the dating of these artworks, but most agree on c. 7,000 to 4,000 B.C.E The New Stone Age (Neolithic Period) Stone formations in Western Europe define this era s art The first formations date to 4,000 BCE Rows or rings of tremendous, rough-hewn stones comprise these formations The stones weigh up to 50 tons and measure up to 17 feet in height Accordingly, historians term these stones megaliths ( great stones ) The megalithic culture fashioned the megaliths Stonehenge at Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England is the most famous megalith This formation arose through several building phases around 2100 BCE The builders employed post-and-lintel construction Stonehenge s main layout consists of three concentric rings It uses bluestone, a type of rock native to England, and the sandstone sarsen Stonehenge s biggest rocks are the sarsen stones in the innermost five posts and lintels Some of these sarsen stones weigh 50 tons A vertical heel-stone stands to the east of Stonehenge From the very center of the horseshoe ring, the midsummer solstice sunrise appears directly behind the heel-stone Stone Age art versus later art These artworks were created in isolation from each other and have survived thousands of years More art remains from later cultures due to conditions favorable to creation and preservation Artistic activity increases in societies with stable cities, whose rulers provide patronage These population centers often become great cities such as Babylonia Preservation increases in cultures that place art in inaccessible locations such as caves and tombs These artworks are more likely to survive until art historians secure them The Near East Ancient Mesopotamian art Mesopotamia, the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, contained several civilizations Like their contemporaries, the Egyptians, these civilizations innovated in writing and the arts Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia lacked natural barriers such as deserts or mountains Mesopotamia was more susceptible to frequent invasion Along with their lack of durable materials, these conquests reduced the number of surviving Mesopotamian artworks Sumer grew as the first Mesopotamian civilization from around 4000 to 2334 BCE Remarkable Sumerian sculptures and buildings arose during this time period Enormous temples mark city centers and reflect the importance of religion in Sumer Simple platform structures formed the earlier temples

22 Eventually, temples developed into ziggurats, or stepped pyramids In c BCE, Sargon of Akkad subjugated Sumer s cities Despite a language barrier, Akkadian society assimilated the Sumerians While Sumer valued loyalty to the city-state, Akkad coveted monarchical loyalty Akkadian art centers on freestanding and relief sculptures of its kings Mountainous Guti barbarians invaded Akkad circa 2150 BCE Sumer s cities, however, regained power just 50 years later The King of Ur became the first Neo-Sumerian monarch Ziggurats are Neo-Sumerian artists most noteworthy works Urban administrative and economic activity revolved around these structures Ziggurats, however, served primarily as temples The Great Ziggurat of Ur stands near Nasiriyah, Iraq In c BCE, the city-state of Babylon rose to power Hammurabi took control of several Mesopotamian city states He then recorded Babylonian law in the first-ever legal code, the Code of Hammurabi A stone stele 4 inscribed with the code forms the most acclaimed artwork from the period The Louvre Museum houses this stele Atop the code in high-relief, sun-god Shamash inspires Hammurabi to write the code These civilizations had their base in southern Mesopotamia At the same time, the civilization of Assyria reigned over northern Mesopotamia Then from c. 900 to 600 BCE, Assyria conquered the entire Near East Notable relief carvings illustrate battles, sieges, and other significant moments During the 7 th century BCE, Babylonia gradually usurped Assyria During the Neo-Babylonian period from c. 612 to 538 BCE, Babylonia ruled Mesopotamia Neo-Babylonians constructed the wondrous hanging gardens of Babylon They also built the Ishtar Gate, an entrance to the giant ziggurat Temple of Bel This gate has animals carved on its surface Persia The region of modern Iran gave rise to the Persian Empire (c BCE) Persian artists expressed the most skill in architecture They constructed the Egyptian-inspired Palace at Persepolis from stone, brick, and wood Ancient Egyptian art The birth of Ancient Egypt and the pre-dynastic period occurred in c. 3,500 BCE Alexander the Great s conquest ended Ancient Egyptian civilization in 332 BCE A plethora of legendary artworks comes from Ancient Egypt Many Egyptian artworks feature hierarchical scale, where status determines size The Palette of King Narmer (c. 3,000 BCE) forms one example This stone tablet dates to between Dynasties III and VI of Egypt s Old Kingdom 4 A stele is an upright, carved pillar or piece of stone that serves as a marker or monument.

23 Egyptians may have used the palette to mix cosmetics for rituals In the palette center, King Narmer towers over other figures He hoists a vanquished enemy by the hair, preparing to strike a fatal blow Two diminutive fallen enemies languish in the lower section below Narmer Most subsequent ancient Egyptian art emulates the palette s hierarchical scale The Great Pyramids at Giza Portrait bust of Queen Nefertiti Larger than life pharaoh statues The Sphinx These works also reuse the organization and poses of the figures in the palette The fractional representation technique derives from several poses The head and lower body are in profile The eye and torso are in frontal view Centuries of Egyptian art follow this standard of depiction individuals Preservation of Egyptian artifacts and images increased with the culture s burial customs The elite mummified their dead in tombs full of furnishings, jewelry, and symbolic servants The crypt of boy king Tutankhamen ( BCE) remains the most famous tomb Thieves had plundered most pharaohs tombs by the 20 th century A well-hidden site, however, ensured its nearly perfect preservation until 1922 Tutankhamen s burial mask is one of the most exalted treasures This work of art is an idealistic portrait of the king Excavators retrieved this artifact from the interior of Tutankhamen s stone coffin Ancient Egyptians had placed the mask atop the mummy s head and shoulders Blue glass and semi-precious stones adorn this gold mask Nubian art The Nubian kingdom spanned an area of Africa south of Egypt Modern scholars interested in diversifying art history have begun studying this civilization Nubia controlled Egypt for a period and provided its pharaohs Nubian works rarely appear in art collections More exploration of Nubian civilization will enrich these collections and art history Greek Art Cycladic, Minoan and Mycenaean art The Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean cultures thrived in the Aegean islands region These three civilizations artistic advances enabled those of later Greek art Cycladic culture blossomed on the Cyclades archipelago from c to 2000 BCE Much remains unknown about this Aegean Sea civilization Cycladic nude female figures express simple, geometric forms

24 Cycladic artists crafted decorative pottery alongside marble bowls and jars Over time, the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete surpassed that of the Cycladics The Minoan golden age occurred in the 2 nd millennium BCE Minoan culture revolved around Knossos, a city on Crete Knossos royal palace consists of a sprawling labyrinth The half-man, half-bull Minotaur legendarily ruled the maze and ate intruders Archaeologists have exposed the site of Knossos s palace Sea life recurs as the dominant theme in Minoan art, as well as a female snake goddess The Minoan style favors naturalism and centered on palace frescoes and pottery Knossos palace reproduction Statue of the snake goddess Palace fresco of sea life This civilization, however, also showed proficiency in architecture Four large palaces on Crete demonstrate its light, flexible, and organic designs None of these palaces contain defensive elements 5 Minoan culture declined at the same time Mycenaean civilization peaked Historians theorize that the Mycenaeans obliterated the Minoans Mycenae, a Greek mainland city, formed the hub of Mycenaean society Their elegant tombs contain a wealth of artifacts, the richest of which used gold Mycenaean artists also created relief sculptures Archaic Period (c BCE) Archaic Greek sculptors sculpted freestanding figures in marble and limestone Mesopotamian and Egyptian stone sculptures inspired these creations Indeed, Egyptian art s frontal poses recur in Greek figures Greek art, however, delves further into realistic features and dynamic movement Greek temples also arose during this period, using the Doric and Ionic column orders These styles and the later Corinthian style differ in the extent of their ornamentation The Greek Doric order lacks a base; the Tuscan order lacks a detailed shaft 5 The Minoan civilization s island location protected them from enemy invasions.

25 The Composite column order combines the Ionic and Corinthian styles Vase painting became fashionable in Greece and featured countless styles Black silhouette with simple figures Athenian style linear, black figures Corinthian floral, ornate Red figure with black background Classical Period The city-state of Athens created ancient Greece s most acclaimed art during the Classical Period The Early Classical Period dates from c. 475 to 448 BCE Thin Doric columns characterize temples from this period This era s sculptures feature strong, solemn, and simple forms Most sculptors captured figures poised directly before or after a significant action The Early Classical age saw major sculptural innovations Greek sculptors renounced rigid Archaic frontal poses derived from Egyptian art This positioning derived from Egyptian art Sculptors explored realistic, complex forms and poses, including contrapposto Contrapposto means counter positioning The standing figure puts its weight on one leg, appearing more relaxed and natural Western artists emulated Greek sculptures for thousands of years Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical artists strove to match ideal Greek statues Architectural breakthroughs mark the Middle Classical Period (c BCE) Middle Classical temples exemplify these architectural advances The restored Parthenon temple (447 BCE) remains among the most acclaimed structures Its column construction continues to form a model for Western architecture today It also uses post-and-lintel construction, a fundamental development in architecture Architecture progressed slowly in the Late Classical Period (c BCE) Athens suffered from its loss in the Peloponnesian War Plain Doric columns continued in use, but ornate Corinthian columns gained popularity Hellenistic Period (c BCE) Art from the Hellenistic Period fused the styles of eastern Greece and Asia Minor Two acclaimed Hellenistic masterworks are the Venus de Milo and the Laocoön Group

26 Etruscan and Roman Art Etruscan art In the 1st millennium BCE, the Etruscan civilization emerged in modern Italy This group s art bridges idealistic Greek art and pragmatic Roman art The Etruscans short-lived brick and wood buildings left behind no traces Fortunately, ceramic models, presumably of Etruscan temples, have survived These models incorporate Greek-inspired column-supported gables 6 and tiled roofs Other remaining Etruscan artifacts are works of bronze and baked clay Some of the baked clay objects serve as sarcophagus lids The bronze items demonstrate the Etruscans proficiency in this art form Tomb decorations supply most art historical knowledge of the Etruscans Studies of several aforementioned cultures also rely on this source The walls and ceilings of these crypts contain the only enduring Etruscan paintings They depict funeral festivities featuring music and dancing in bright and flat colors Roman art Military conquests and the formation of an empire define Roman history Etruscan influences permeated early Roman art By the 2 nd century BCE, sculptors and other Roman artists were adapting Greek art Idealized portraits of Roman rulers derived standards from Greek art Rome invented several engineering and architecture techniques, including concrete Concrete mixed with rocks and rubble served as a strong mortar to bind stone walls This invention enabled the construction of massive domed buildings, aqueducts, and baths Architects also introduced the curved arch that enabled stronger bridges and aqueducts A new paved road network included these bridges The empire s roads facilitated widespread communication and control The Colosseum (70-80 CE) and the Pantheon ( CE) exemplify Roman ingenuity The former uses vaulted construction Giovanni Battista Piranesi engraved an image of the Colosseum in A gable is a triangle-shaped wall between two sloping roofs.

27 Roman art also includes a wealth of sculptures The examples of portrait busts and large statues only present two extremes Roman portrait sculptors explored a myriad of different sizes for their portraits This civilization s sculptures center on Roman ideals Both the funerary sculptures and public statues use idealism None of these works sculptors attempted to execute realistic portraits Roman art strongly influenced the art of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and beyond Byzantine and Medieval Art Byzantine art The decline of the vast Roman empire reduced the domain s regions to warring kingdoms Rome collapsed in Western Europe, but the empire s eastern half endured as Byzantium Mosaic work remains its most renowned art form Mosaic artists cobble surfaces with compact ceramic tiles, glass shards, or stones Murals often feature Christian subjects Famous Byzantine mosaics appear on the walls of churches in Ravenna, Italy Despite Ravenna s Italian location, it came under Byzantine rule after Rome fell It built one of history s most wondrous buildings, Istanbul s Hagia Sophia ( CE) Early medieval period ( CE) The Nomadic Germanic culture excelled in geometric metalwork It crafted small ornaments or jewels of bronze, silver, or gold Patterns of jewels adorn these trinkets Scandinavia s Viking culture preferred the medium of wood Viking carvers added designs and sculptures to wooden ships Viking invasions led to a Hiberno-Saxon artistic style mixing Viking, Anglo-Saxon English, and Celtic Irish influences Throughout the medieval age, wars kept much of Europe s population from creating art The Catholic Church preserved most of this period s artworks

28 In addition, most of the population lacked the ability to read Generally, only nobles and clergymen enjoyed the privilege of an education Latin remained the international language of medieval Europe Book preservation and production revolved around monasteries Monks created vellum 7 or parchment 8 copies of books by hand Monks chained these extremely valuable books to tables in their monasteries These brilliant illuminated manuscripts circulated artistic ideas throughout Europe The Book of Kells (c. 800) and the Coronation Gospels (c ) exemplify illuminated manuscripts role as fine art Late medieval period ( CE) During this age, church architecture became the prevailing art form A church stood at the heart of each city, town, and village Many of these structures are immense and extremely detailed The construction of these masterful churches often exceeded a century The first church architects of the late medieval age based their plans on Roman arches As a result, their method has become known as the Romanesque style Saint-Sernin ( ) is a renowned Romanesque basilica in Toulouse, France A barrel vault, or tunnel of arches, served as a church s underlying structure Vault structures contain arched ceilings or roof supports Romanesque churches use stone vaults These churches replaced earlier buildings whose wood roofing easily caught fire Hefty stone arches, however, required huge walls Romanesque architects minimized the sizes of windows and doors Carvings and relief sculptures usually adorned these doors Gothic art (early 12 th century sixteenth century) Some secular buildings exhibit Gothic traits, but churches formed the style s forte Three main architectural techniques feature in Gothic buildings Pointed arches Ribbed vaults Flying buttresses Crested form enhances the interiors vertical, lofty mood Two lean stone arches (ribs) cross and support the intersection of two vaults Exterior half-arches reinforce walls to offset barrel vaults' downward and outward thrust 7 A fine-grained unsplit lambskin, kidskin, or calfskin prepared especially for writing on or for binding books. 8 Parchment is the skin of a sheep or goat prepared for writing

29 Flying buttresses strengthened exterior walls to permit bigger windows and loftier ceilings Resplendent stained glass in these windows added light and color to the interior These architectural changes resulted in the distinctive Gothic skeletal, thin-walled style France s Chartres Cathedral epitomizes Gothic churches Its towering arches and iridescent stained glass light draw visitors gazes to the heavens Architects began this cathedral in 1134 and rebuilt it after 1194 The Renaissance Seeds of the Renaissance The shift from the late medieval period to the Renaissance serves as a reminder that history cannot be neatly periodized A transitional period of mixed styles bridges Gothic and Renaissance art Florentine Giotto di Bondone ( ) remains this period s most noteworthy artist, particularly for his frescoes He developed simple perspective, which overlaps subjects to imply depth He also drew his figures from in-the-round 9 models to achieve simple perspective Giotto seems to set the stage for viewers to witness an event Contrary to Gothic artists, Giotto endowed his subjects with emotions and meaningful gestures Today, his depictions may appear unrealistic Giotto s departure from flat, stylized, Gothic art must have surprised viewers Interestingly, economic change helped to spur Renaissance The invention of paper money allowed notables such as the Medici to hoard wealth These figures became instrumental in Renaissance art patronage Italian artists access to Greek and Roman art helped influence the start of the Renaissance Art history begins to emphasize artists biographies in the individual-centric Renaissance Society began to value the concept of individual genius Painters and sculptors had been classified as artisans since the Greek era This lesser status seemed proper because artists worked with their hands Renaissance culture, however, established artistic masters as reputable intellectuals All artists ascended to the higher echelons of society Early Italian Renaissance The city of Florence s design competition in 1400 was a vital event in the early Renaissance Upon the completion of a new baptistery, 10 Florence held this competition to determine which artist would design the structure s doors Lorenzo Ghiberti s (c ) door panel proposal won the contest 9 In the round is another term for freestanding (visible from all sides) sculpture. 10 A baptistery is a part of a church or other building used for baptism, a sacrament admitting the recipient to Christianity.

30 Ghiberti depicted the sacrifice of Isaac 11, giving Isaac classical Greek features After Ghiberti concluded his work on the door panels, he received another door sculpture commission for a different entrance to the baptistery Ghiberti spent over 25 years crafting these doors His extravagant final product earned the lasting name Gates of Paradise from Michelangelo Filippo Brunelleschi ( ) was the runner-up in the baptistery door competition This loss compelled Brunelleschi to absorb himself in architecture He triumphed in a competition to build Florence Cathedral s dome Earlier architects failures to design a sufficiently wide vault halted construction for years Brunelleschi finally succeeded when he employed a double-shelled dome Generations of subsequent architects adopted this design Brunelleschi also invented linear perspective, or single vanishing point perspective Renaissance painter Masaccio ( ), however, first applied linear perspective Masaccio s frescoes employ both linear and aerial perspective The advent of linear perspective exerted a profound, enduring influence on art Donatello (c ) forms a giant of Renaissance art and founder of modern sculpture He drew largely from classical art, for instance in his bronze statue David (c ) No known freestanding nude statues had been created since the classical period Donatello s later works lean towards naturalism, character, and theatricality Botticelli (c ) worked a generation after Donatello His work implemented an ideal of female beauty that remained for centuries Botticelli s most celebrated painting, The Birth of Venus (c. 1482) reflects his work Except for several Renaissance painters, no other artist had painted a full-length female nude since the classical period Venus alluring aspects include a long neck, loose hair, and a relaxed pose The High Renaissance The High Renaissance generation of artists succeeded Botticelli s generation Leonardo da Vinci ( ) and Michelangelo di Buonarroti ( ) were illustrious High Renaissance artists who inspired the term Renaissance Man 12 Leonardo earned prestige for his work in several different occupations: He invented modern-day canal locks that allow ships to move between levels of water In addition, Leonardo s submarine and helicopter sketches are functional designs 11 In this tale, God orders Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac. Abraham reluctantly obliges. Right as he thrusts a dagger into his son s throat, an angel intervenes and reveals God merely meant to test Abraham s loyalty; Isaac is free to live. 12 A Renaissance man is a person who has wide interests and is expert in several areas (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary).

31 His legendary paintings, The Last Supper (c ) and Mona Lisa (c ), have become pop culture icons Mona Lisa displays Leonardo s groundbreaking technique, sfumato This term derives from the Italian word for smoke, fumo In sfumato, soft colors and outlines blur transitions between forms Michelangelo and Leonardo worked in Florence at the same time At this time, Michelangelo was sculpting David (1504) Florence obtained the source marble and Michelangelo won the city s competition for the right to sculpt a statue from the marble The city discovered that this marble contained a sizable crack Michelangelo, however, surpassed this difficulty to create David This statue guaranteed Michelangelo s fame and symbolized the Florentine republic s spirit David s form exceeds human scale because an early, aborted plan positioned it high above ground on the façade of Florence Cathedral This statue would have needed a large form to remain visible David s carving, pose, and smooth marble texture all attract viewers Michelangelo produced many noteworthy sculptures but led a chaotic career In 1505, he received a commission from Pope Julius II to plan the pope s tomb Michelangelo began work on a collection of outstanding statues from 1513 to 1516 He created Moses, The Dying Slave and The Bound Slave Pope Julius II, however, suddenly canceled his commission, for reasons unknown Michelangelo s despair at the wasted effort marked a low in his career Michelangelo has become more renowned for painting than sculpture After cancelling the tomb, Julius II commissioned him to paint the Sistine Chapel s ceiling Michelangelo reluctantly accepted the pope s commission He spent 1508 to 1512 painting the 700 square yard ceiling The Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes remain one of history s most celebrated masterpieces In recent decades, attempts to restore this work attracted publicity The restoration purged centuries-old layers of oil, wax, and grime from the frescoes Michelangelo s original brilliant colors reappeared The cleaning generated controversy for arguably violating the artwork s integrity Debates surround other art restorations for this same reason Raphael Sanzio ( ) was another highly influential High Renaissance artist He traveled to Rome in his youth and received commissions from Pope Julius II Raphael also studied Michelangelo s work, despite a rivalry between the two This study proved instrumental in Raphael s education While Michelangelo lived as a recluse, Raphael recruited assistants in painting dazzling frescoes on the walls of Julius II s official chambers The most esteemed of these works, School of Athens, ( ) commemorates Greece s most exalted philosophers and scientists Raphael also produced acclaimed paintings of the Virgin Mary

32 Religious artworks from the Renaissance to the present emulate his masterpieces depicting the Virgin, including Sistine Madonna (c ) The Renaissance in Venice Venice and other cities joined Florence and Rome in contributing to Renaissance art The Venetian Giorgione (c ) pioneered landscape painting His scenes depart from Biblical, allegorical, or classical references The Tempest (c. 1508) established the landscape as a subject Previously, most artists had painted human figures first, before adding the background In The Tempest, a looming storm overshadows the humans Titian Vecelli ( ) worked in portraiture He had an unmatched talent for color and had an especially prolific output Titian also earned fame for departing from the convention of neutral portrait backgrounds He presented his patrons in front of columns or curtains This revolutionary technique impacted portraiture well into the 20 th century Tintoretto ( ) ranked among the prominent Venetian painters Art historians generally categorize his work in the Mannerist style Mannerism peaked in the late sixteenth century and featured distinct stylistic traits It distorted its scale, perspective, and subjects poses, among other elements Artists used toxic-appearing colors Tintoretto used a different color palette for his Mannerist illustrations He also sought theatricality in his art through dramatic angles and shading contrasts Tintoretto supposedly experimented with many arrangements of small models His juxtaposition of light and dark, or chiaroscuro, intensifies emotions Religious subject matter determines much of Tintoretto s late work His chiaroscuro and carefully honed perspectives prelude Baroque art Reformation and Counter Reformation art The sixteenth century Protestant Reformation critiqued the Catholic church s luxury and corruption Artists abandoned the Renaissance s elaborate church decoration and religious imagery The Church retaliated with a Counter Reformation Its art further enhanced church decoration and theatrical, emotional subjects An eminent Mannerist painter, El Greco, symbolizes the Counter Reformation His birth name was Dominikos Theotokopoulos Tintoretto s paintings held a powerful influence over El Greco El Greco s experience also included a stint working in Titian s Venetian workshop In 1576, he traveled from Italy to Toledo, Spain

33 El Greco stretched his figures into dramatic poses, expressing the Counter- Reformation s zeal Tintoretto and El Greco embody the transition between the Renaissance and Baroque eras Northern Europe and the Renaissance Northern European artists produced smaller but much more realistic art during the fifteenth century The advent of oil paint empowered this realism At the time of the Italian Renaissance, art north of the Alps remained mainly Gothic The classical craze did not captivate northern artists They lacked their Italian contemporaries proximity to classical and ancient Roman art Italian Renaissance ideas proliferated in northern European art in the sixteenth century Italian artists traveled in Northern Europe Northern artists visited Italy and study Renaissance art Engravings of famous Italian artworks circulated Europe Venetian and German merchants trade Southern Germany prospered artistically in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries These ideas did not hold sway over all northern artists Several northern artists adhered to traditional styles Even artists who used Renaissance methods retained some traditional styles Germans Matthias Grünewald (c ) and Albrecht Dürer ( ) remain the most eminent Northern European Renaissance artists Only 10 works by Grünewald survive, but he had an extensive influence Grünewald specialized in religious scenes, especially Christ s crucifixion His magnum opus, the Isenheim Altarpiece (c ), spans nine panels Double sets of folding wings hold these panels Dürer s first artistic studies centered on late Gothic works He encountered Italian Renaissance ideas in the sixteenth century Dürer visited Italy to see the work of present artists and shared its ideas in Germany His style merges Italy s art theories with northern Europe s naturalism and sharp detail Dürer produced discourses on art theories and serial woodcut as well as copper engravings His works include The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c. 1498) and Veronica Veronica uses hatching in lighter areas such as the background and crosshatching in darker areas Another distinguished artist was the German artist Hans Holbein the Younger ( ) His fame stems from his portraits, which rank among the greatest of the Renaissance Holbein earned most recognition in England, where King Henry VIII employed him Holbein s portrait of the king shows his gift for details and capturing subjects psyche

34 English painters modeled their work after Holbein well into the nineteenth century The Baroque Era and Its Successors Baroque history and style Between the Renaissance and Baroque eras, Europe changed politically Wars now pitted empires, not city-states, against each other The Catholic Church poured its energy into retaining power over Spain and Italy Jesuits and other missionaries arose during this era to convert natives of new colonies Counter Reformation goals shaped Baroque art s theatrical and passionate calls to faith To meet these aims, Baroque artists abandoned the simple classical style In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European society submitted to the ruling class Monarchs justified their absolute power as divinely ordained Some Baroque monarchs stand among the most powerful rulers in history Baroque rulers amassed wealth and power while lower-class poverty reached a breaking point Several individuals spoke out against this massive inequality Enlightenment writings included those of Jean-Jacques Rousseau The monarchy, however, supplied the patronage behind Baroque masterpieces Baroque usually describes post-renaissance art from the late sixteenth to mideighteenth centuries As a term, baroque also refers to majestic coloring and ornamentation These elements imbued the energy and emotion common in Baroque masterpieces Baroque artists strove to maximize dramatic impact They frequently applied the chiaroscuro technique to enhance theatricality Chiaroscuro amplifies contrasts of light and dark to create a theatrical spotlight Italian Baroque artists The Italian Baroque painter Caravaggio ( ) earned fame for his chiaroscuro Centuries worth of artists emulated his technique Caravaggesque even describes artworks juxtaposing harsh light and dark tones This new term shows the extent of Caravaggio s influence Caravaggio s paintings also took naturalism to a new level Traditional art depicts the Virgin and the apostles as regal 13 USAD Error: Caravaggio was born in 1571 not 1573.

35 Caravaggio showed them as simple paupers in tattered clothes He even recruited the poor as models to fulfill his goal of naturalism Some of his patrons took offense and cast aside their purchased paintings Feminist art historians have recently placed Artemisia Gentileschi (c c. 1652) among noteworthy Baroque artists Social norms rarely permitted women to study art Gentileschi, however, was born to a painter and worked in her father s studio She tailored and reapplied Caravaggio s methods which brought her artistic prestige Gentileschi painted women from the Old Testament and self-portraits 14 Gianlorenzo Bernini ( ) formed the most important Baroque artist He first demonstrated artistic virtuosity as a child The Pope recognized Bernini when the artist was only 17 Raised by a sculptor, Bernini became a master sculptor himself He was also strong in architecture, painting, and drawing Bernini s work involving theater design also influenced his art Bernini s masterpiece, The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa ( ), forms part of the altar in the Cornaro Chapel A stained glass window shines dramatic gold light on the saint The overall effect resembles a theatrical stage Bernini also followed a new approach in the sculpture itself Traditional sculptors carved calm, classical, and flowing drapery Saint Theresa s drapery devolves into realistic maze of creases Bernini also sculpted clouds around Saint Theresa, a groundbreaking use of marble 15 Northern European Baroque artists Baroque art s significance transcended Italy Peter Paul Rubens ( ) worked in Flanders His early paintings exude energy and color, earning much admiration Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn ( ) produced some of the best Baroque artworks He was a great painter, printmaker, and draftsmen 16 The Night Watch (1642) is likely Rembrandt s most acclaimed artwork The proper title is Sortie of Captain Banning Cocq s Company of the Civic Guard 14 If you have time, compare Gentileschi s Judith to Gentileschi s and Caravaggio s versions share the chiaroscuro technique, but differ in their portrayal of women. 15 She actually reclines on a single large cloud. 16 A draftsman is one who creates technical designs and plans (Dictionary.com)

36 In the contemporary tradition, each guard paid Rembrandt a certain amount to appear in The Night Watch Rembrandt applied a highly untraditional arrangement Some guards appear in more visible positions Rembrandt s departure from convention hurt his career He died a poor man but spent his final years painting self portraits These paintings rank among the most exceptional personality studies ever French and Spanish Baroque art The Baroque era reached its height in the long reign of King Louis XIV in France This ruler united modern France and presided over a flourishing of French culture In 1669, he initiated the construction of the extravagant Palace of Versailles This chateau occupied across 200 acres in Versailles, France with multiple smaller structures: A stable holding hundreds of horses Majestic buildings and gardens an Orangerie (greenhouse) for orange trees Later additions included a zoo, fountains, waterfalls, and a canal for mock naval battles Louis XIV dispensed art patronage through the Salon system Its annual exhibition began art judging The judges rules influence present-day art criticism Salons remained influential through the nineteenth century The king also founded the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, known as the Academy It served to standardize artistic tastes and styles Louis XIV even styled himself the Sun King, or the earthly court s center of revolution Other European rulers strove to duplicate the French monarchy s power and splendor King Philip IV, the sovereign of Spain, also aspired to match his northern neighbor s court Bernini s contemporary, Diego Velázquez, ( ) worked as Philip IV s court painter Velázquez first applied fields of color to the canvas and then detailed his figures Most other artists based paintings on underlying sketches Velázquez s unorthodox style inspired generations of later artists and Impressionism Rococo art Some consider Rococo art an offshoot of Baroque art, but they had different styles and subjects Baroque artists aimed to appeal to intense emotions Rococo artists reveled in good cheer, romance, and lighthearted court life Ebullient decorations in creamy colors and gold characterize Rococo art

37 Since aristocrats commissioned Rococo art, the style centered on witticism and grace Three artists mastered these two principles and were at the forefront of the Rococo movement Jean-Antoine Watteau ( ) spearheaded the first Rococo generation He concocted fête galante 17, a new painting genre In most fête galante paintings, nobles luxuriate in the countryside The nobles don elegant and modern clothes François Boucher ( ) drew inspiration from Watteau s delicacy His works place characters from classical myths in nobles grand celebrations Most of these characters appear as comely nudes Madame Pompadour, Louis XV s mistress, especially favored Boucher Jean-Honoré Fragonard ( ) also enjoyed Pompadour s patronage Fragonard s works parallel those of his mentor, François Boucher The turn to neoclassicism France s Revolution of 1789 ignited change across the European continent This period s artworks reflect the growing popularity of democracy and republicanism Interest in Greco-Roman democratic ideas spurred a resurgence in classical art Neoclassicism refers to artworks which follow this trend Enlightenment philosophy cultivated Neoclassicism in the decades before the 1789 Revolution Neoclassical art attacked Rococo art and its aristocratic ties Jacques Louis David ( ) led the Neoclassicists in touting classical virtues David s Oath of the Horatii (1784) captures these virtues After the French Revolution, David worked under the new government He served as master of ceremonies for pro-revolution mass rallies Napoleon Bonaparte then employed David as a propaganda painter David s propaganda may seem to contradict his earlier classical paintings Jean Dominique Ingres ( ) studied under David Four elements of Ingres s art typify the Neoclassical style Romanticism The artistic approach of Romanticism diverged from its predecessor, Neoclassicism The linear style, order, and lack of passion define Neoclassicism Romanticism favored imaginative, dreamlike, and passionate art The divide between Romantic emotion and Neoclassicist reason also distinguished the two Both Romanticism and Baroque art stressed emotion, among other similarities Romantics, however, introduced new subject matter such as exotic, theatrical figures For instance, wonder at the power of nature frequently features in this style Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix ( ) and Ingres became rivals Delacroix s exotic themes and subjects included foreign locales, violent animals, and historical events 17 The term fête galante literally translates to gallant feast or festival.

38 Other Romantics included Théodore Gericault ( ) and William Blake ( ) Realism Realism mainly responded to Neoclassicism and Romanticism This movement promoted a lack of bias in portrayal or subject matter Unbiased portrayal referred to completely accurate images including even negative details A painting of a commoner equaled a historical or religious painting in importance Gustave Courbet ( ) led the Realists with an extroverted and flamboyant personality Courbet exhibited The Stonebreakers ( ) at a government-funded Salon Historical and religious painters controlled exhibitions before the advent of Realism Courbet s painting, however, illustrates common laborers repairing a road This revolution in subject matter infuriated conservative Salon viewers The Stonebreaker also delivers a political message in the wake of the year 1848 A surge of uprisings across Europe began in this year Honoré Daumier ( ) and Jean François Millet ( ) also worked in the style Impressionism The Académie des Beaux-Arts controlled annual Salon exhibitions through stringent rules Salons publicized the works of select artists Frustration resulting from Salon rules resulted in the Impressionist movement Most art historians identify Édouard Manet ( ) as the first Impressionist Manet claimed he was not part of the movement Regardless, the Impressionists revered his artworks lighting methods Disparities between bright colors define light in Manet s work Manet painted Le Dejéuner sur L herbe (Luncheon on the Grass, 1863) He displayed it at the Salon des Refusés 18 of 1863 The Salon des Refusés displayed works that the Salon rejected This piece borrows from a classical-inspired engraving Manet, however, portrayed two clothed men with a nude woman At the time, only classical characters or women in exotic locations appeared as nudes Manet s violation of this convention inspired mockery and controversy Manet kept submitting artworks to the Salons 18 Salon des Refusés means exhibition of rejects. -Christina

39 Other artists cultivated Impressionism outside established channels The movement takes its name from Claude Monet s ( ) Impression Sunrise (1873) When Monet exhibited this work, critics adopted impression as a derogatory term Impressionists embraced the nickname and made it their own Monet pressured Impressionists to work outdoors New paints and brushes allowed this approach Impressionists quick brushstrokes reflect the transient light Contemporary scientists showed that shadows represent an objects complementary color Camille Pissarro ( ) and Alfred Sisley ( ) also belonged to Impressionism Post-Impressionism Artists working in Post-Impressionism altered various elements of Impressionism Paul Cézanne ( ) was the most influential Post-Impressionist Impressionism s lack of solid forms inspired him to revolutionize form in art He claimed that every object consists of simple geometric forms such as cubes or cones 20 th century Cubism mirrors Cézanne s philosophy Cézanne proposed dividing paintings into the fore, middle, and background planes Georges Seurat ( ) typified Post-Impressionists who sought vivid colors His art applied the scientific properties of color Seurat s method of optical mixing combined small dots of complementary colors These dots formed brilliant colors Prioritizing technique over subjects, however, drained artworks of their energy Vincent van Gogh ( ) was an art student at the peak of Seurat and Cezanne s careers He used contrast and thickly applied impasto 19 paint to replicate southern France s brightly lit landscapes Van Gogh also pioneered the idea of depicting emotions through intensified, not realistic, colors Night Café (1888) reflects van Gogh s perception of poolrooms as immoral Shrill yellows, greens, and reds exude decadence Van Gogh also used energetic brushwork and convoluted forms His technique aimed to evoke potent reactions Van Gogh s works have become legendary despite his brief career Paul Gauguin s ( ) biography draws as much interest as his art 19 Recall that some artists add texture to their paintings through a lumpy surface called impasto. 20 USAD Error: Gaugin was born in 1848, not 1843.

40 He abandoned a thriving career as a stockbroker, his family, and his wife to explore art Van Gogh briefly mentored Gauguin in southern France Like other Impressionists, Gauguin aimed for powerful light and clear colors Dissatisfied with van Gogh s color, Gauguin left his mentor and traveled to Tahiti He hoped painting the tropical island would bring color and nature into his art Gauguin s work in Tahiti portrays the verdant tropical landscape and natives Colonialism affected the perspective of these works Inventions and imports External influences transformed the art world in the nineteenth century After the advent of the camera, some artists doubted the purpose of reproducing reality Impressionists became the first artists to paint outdoors after the inventions of the paint tube and chemical paint Colonialism brought exotic objects to Europe that shaped Impressionist and later art African masks and Japanese prints exemplify influence of foreign items Japanese merchants used prints as packaging material in their exports to Europe Impressionist artist Edgar Degas ( ) applied a snapshot style and a perspective from just above his subject His approaches reflect the influence of photography and Japanese prints, respectively New styles The English Pre-Raphaelite art movement objected to Industrial Revolution influences Pre-Raphaelites revived simplistic pre-renaissance art Romantic, archaic, and moralizing elements lend Pre- Raphaelite art a religious semblance Art Nouveau drew from the Pre-Raphaelites broad curves and depiction of nature This style of decoration, architecture, and design came into fashion during the late nineteenth and early 20 th centuries It favors flowing, serpentine lines representing leaves and flowers Modernism Early styles Many new artistic styles blossomed at the turn of the 20 th century Henri Matisse ( ) led a group of artists in continuing the Post-Impressionists quest to increase the scope of color Like Vincent van Gogh, Matisse and his contemporaries disregarded realistic color Instead, they freely applied intense arbitrary color Disgruntled art critics dubbed Matisse and his contemporaries fauves, or wild beasts The Paris-based Cubists followed suit, but attacked form rather than color Pablo Picasso ( ) and Georges Braque ( ) developed the style in 1908 Cubism reflects psychology s view that experience consists of multiple mental images These images vary in their angle of view and setting in time Braque and Picasso combined multiple perspectives into single figures

41 Cubists borrowed from African rather than European art They valued intuition and nature over intellect Abstraction also replaced naturalism in Cubist works Cubists disdained the late nineteenth and early 20 th century s realistic and sentimental art The Expressionist style emerged in two German artist groups Die Brücke 21 adapted the Fauvists bright arbitrary colors and Edvard Munch s powerful emotions Norwegian artist Edvard Munch lived from 1863 to 1944 Die Brücke sought to illustrate the inner mind Ernst Ludwig Kirchner ( ) and Emil Nolde ( ) joined this circle of artists Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky ( ) founded Der Blaue Reiter 22 He abandoned traditional subjects and created completely abstract paintings from 1913 Other early abstract artists included Russian artist Kazimir Malevich ( ) and Dutch artist Piet Mondrian ( ) Mondrian s De Stijl 23 paintings of flat fields of primary color influence many modern artists Modernism in the United States World War I and the Armory Show marked the art world s shift from Paris to New York City The controversial Armory Show (February 17 to March 15) marked the arrival of modern art in the United States It featured many works that later became icons of European art movements Art Source of Controversy Picasso s Les Demoiselles d Avignon 24 (1907) Unorthodox figures and space Marcel Duchamp s Nude Descending a Staircase (1912) Brancusi s The Kiss Abstract, blocky figures Kandinsky s paintings Non-representative art The rise of modernism coincided with the 1920s Harlem Renaissance The popularity of African-American jazz briefly inspired black writers and artists in Harlem It also inspired later generations such as Romare Bearden and Jacob Lawrence 21 German for The Bridge. 22 German for The Blue Rider. 23 Dutch for The Style. 24 French for The Young Ladies of Avignon.

42 Art between the two World Wars The first Dadaists included dissident intellectuals in Zurich 25 It grew during and after World War I Dada channeled artists frustrations and ridiculed society They mocked traditional values and norms as well as ideas about art Marcel Duchamp painted a mustached Mona Lisa in the offensively titled LHOOQ 26 (1919) Duchamp also created Fountain (1917), a porcelain urinal Fountain exemplifies Duchamp s new genre of ready-mades Commonplace objects placed in a new context create art Duchamp challenged the traditional role of the artist Instead of creating a work, the artist selected an object to display as art Several of Picasso s pieces qualify as ready-mades Bull s Head (1943) forms its subject from bicycle handlebars and seat Psychologist Sigmund Freud inspired a circle of Surrealist artists to paint the inner mind They included Salvador Dalí ( ), René Magritte ( ), and Joan Miró ( ) The Bauhaus school in Germany developed streamlined furniture and building design This style remains influential in modern architectural plans and curriculums Ambitious Bauhaus standards integrated aesthetical form and industrial function In the Bauhaus school, a building s form reflected its function and source material In 1933, Nazi Germany dissolved the Bauhaus institution Bauhaus professors moved to the United States and continued teaching They included Josef Albers ( ), a painter, graphic artist, and designer World War II put art movements on hold Many artists either served as soldiers or created pro-war propaganda During Europe s recovery, New York City sealed its position as the capital of the art world English, French, Italian, and German art did not return to prominence for half a century Critics like Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg controlled the 1950s art scene For instance, Greenberg s support guaranteed the popularity of abstract art Many other factors shaped 20 th century art, including atomic power and new technologies Abstract Expressionism Abstract Expressionism grew out of Kandinsky s abstraction during and after the 1940s Kandinsky likened his art to non-representational music Artworks in this style fit in one of two categories: action-paintings or color field paintings Action painting Color field 25 The largest city in Switzerland. 26 Google LHOOQ translation if you are not easily offended.

43 Emotional colors and dramatic, sweeping brushstrokes Jackson Pollock ( ) s drip paintings Large areas of color in simple, geometric forms Josef Albers and Mark Rothko Other Abstract Expressionists included Willem de Kooning ( ), Lee Krasner ( ), and Franz Kline ( ) Pop Art Some artists turned against abstraction and revived naturalism in a different way They adapted consumer objects as subjects Jasper Johns s (1930-) works include commonplace items such as flags, maps, and letters Robert Rauschenberg ( ) executed combines using discarded objects or silkscreens and paint In Bed (1955), he treated his bedclothes as a wall canvas In Monogram (1959), he made a collage of found items: a stuffed goat, a tire, a police barrier, a shoe heel, a tennis ball, and paint The entry of everyday objects into art inspired the prominent Pop Art movement Pop Art flourished in the 1960s Mass culture entered formal art, breaching subject matter conventions Andy Warhol ( ) symbolized the Pop Art movement Warhol created famous silkscreens of soup cans, Brillo boxes, and movie stars These images appear mechanically generated, a twist on fine art Roy Lichtenstein s ( ) art mimics the stippling of comic book illustrations Robert Indiana (1928-) used commercial sign stencils to produce his artworks Photorealism Pop Art inspired Photorealism, an art movement centered on extreme realism Photorealist works imitate photos through crisp focus Their sharp outlines complement the Renaissance s hazy sfumato outline technique Chuck Close (1940-) created portraits and Duane Hanson ( ) sculpted humorous images of common people The advanced realism of Photorealism resembles the style of Gustave Courbet Minimalism Simple forms and monochromatic color ranges characterize Minimalism Minimalists reduced art to its most basic elements This style favors hard-edge paintings of large, abstract images with precise lines Two inventions, acrylic paint and the airbrush, permitted these sharp lines Frank Stella (1936-) remains the most eminent hard-edge painter David Smith ( ) and Dan Flavin ( ) sculpted abstract minimalist pieces Smith s sculptures consist of stainless steel and Flavin used neon tubing Postmodernist art Postmodernism reacts to modernism and manifests in many types of media Extreme modernism sometimes characterizes postmodernist works Postmodernists may also revive earlier art to challenge contemporary values and beliefs Philip Johnson ( ) advocated Postmodernist architecture Johnson once worked as an eminent International Style architect

44 The Bauhaus ideal of form based on function controlled architecture for decades Almost all skyscrapers featured steel and a glass exterior In 1970, however, Johnson reintroduced decorative elements to architecture His design for the AT&T Building (1984), later the Sony Building, included a finial 27 Asian Art Chinese Art China has a long history of civilization and art Painted art objects have been found dating back to the 4 th millennium BCE The 2000 mile long Great Wall is perhaps the most famous example of ancient Chinese art It took centuries to construct constructed The wall originally served a utilitarian purpose, but its meaning has changed over time Dynastic rule influenced the development of China s art Many rulers received burial in elaborate tombs filled with art The monument to the Emperor of Qin (c. 210 BCE), unifier of China is one such tomb It has a life-sized, detailed, and life-like army of clay soldiers, equipment, and horses Later rulers built walled cities and magnificent palaces Their bronze statues and ceremonial vessels have particular refinement Their casting methods have not been fully understood The Tang Dynasty ( CE) has become known as China s Golden Age The ceramics from this period and ink drawings are especially prized Ink scrolls, like much of Chinese art, helped viewers engage in quiet contemplation The traditions of Chinese art endured for centuries A great change came with the 1949 communist revolution and the politicization of art Art has grown less political since the late 1970s Indian Art India contains many religious and cultural traditions, and over 1600 languages and dialects Greek art and Buddhist thought has strongly influenced Indian art In turn, Indian art has influenced many cultures, especially Chinese Buddhist culture Indian art often has a sensuous, lively style influenced by Hinduism and its pantheon Images of the god Shiva dancing are particularly recognizable Japanese Art Japan banned westerners for many years, developing a consistent style of art The succession of dynasties each left a distinct mark on its fundamentally Buddhist art In general, Japanese art uses flat fields of color and isometric perspective Isometric perspective does not have the singular focal point of linear perspective It tends to convey the impression of looking down, giving a god s eye view After Japan s opening to the West, a group of artists traveled to France to study Impressionism 27 Finials are elaborate ornaments forming an upper extremity, especially in Gothic architecture (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

45 Linear perspective and an Impressionist style briefly became popular However, the artists soon rejected these Western styles Japanese art had a greater influence on the west, especially French artists like Degas and Van Gogh Islamic art Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula in the 6 th century BCE The prophet Muhammad (c BCE) s teachings in the Koran forms its basis The Koran prohibits the depiction of figures Islamic art centers on non-figurative decorations or calligraphy Architecture such as Jerusalem s Dome of the Rock ( ) centers on the practice of prayer All mosques have a qibl wall that faces Mecca African and Oceanic Art Many traditions Africa contains many diverse artistic traditions art of Northern Africa art is often studied as part of Western art history Sub-Saharan Africa has a quite different history Namibian cave paintings offer some of Africa s oldest artworks These paintings date from around 23,000 BCE, earlier than all known European paintings Two important civilizations emerged in what is now Nigeria The Nok civilization (c. 500 BCE) created life-like terracotta sculptures, probably of leaders The civilization may have influenced later groups such as the Yoruba Oba mask The Benin Kingdom arose around 900 CE Its art revolved around court life, particularly the power of the oba, or king Despite the kingdom s wealth, few objects can be found in Nigeria British soldiers raided the royal palace in 1897 and destroyed many treasures Others were confiscated and are now displayed in Western museums Several conditions limit our understanding of African artistic traditions Many art objects were created from perishable fiber and wood European traders and colonists also destroyed much art they thought worthless or dangerous Surviving pieces were studied as archeological artifacts rather than art objects Contextual information was not preserved, making it more difficult to appreciate the art For example, the Dan and Bwa cultures produced impressive masks However, these masks were used as part of complex rituals and festivals Their meaning cannot be fully studied or preserved in a museum Finally, African art such as baskets, ceramics, and textiles tends to be functional Western historians have only recently expanded the definition of art to include utilitarian as well as purely aesthetic objects Similar conditions affect our understanding of Oceanic arts Oceania refers to the islands that make up Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia Many art objects from this region used perishable materials like human skin

46 Polynesian cultures used tattoos as a register of social status In Melanesia, the Asmat cultural group produced art objects for war Large wooden shields with abstract patterns in white, black, and red served as protection Today, the shield have become cultural symbols as headhunting has died out Melanesian cultures also carved wooden masks to summon ancestors in ceremonial rituals Today, cultural groups revive traditional artworks as a way of preserving a distinct identity in the face of globalization and colonization The Americas Art before Columbus American art has traditionally been considered of only anthropological interest A new understanding of American cultures has led to a reevaluation Many great civilizations dominated the Americas at various times Olmec Toltec Maya Inca Aztec Their large cities often featured massive pyramids The Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico City, where Aztecs ruled, is one of the best known The Maya dominated Mexico before the Aztecs and left behind beautiful, complex carvings The cultures of North America left few objects, as the climate did not favor preservation However, the Southwest has a climate more favorable for preservation There, Native Americans left large and admirable pueblo complexes

47 This section provides an overview of Buddhist and Hindu artistic traditions in India. While religion is certainly important to many of these artworks, T. Richard Blurton of the British Museum emphasizes that Indian art cannot be simply categorized based on religion, given that it has many commonalities and developed together. Bear this thought in mind as you study this section. According to the USAD outline, questions should come from Section II 13 questions (26%) come from Section I on the USAD Art Practice Test Section II covers pgs of the USAD Art Resource Guide Indus Valley Civilization Key features The Indus Valley culture dates from c B.C.E It formed the South Asia civilization The civilization occupied modern-day Pakistan and northern India Its activity centered on the Indus River It also has the name Harappa after the first site found Like Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it is a river valley culture More than 1,000 Indus Valley sites have been found, but only about 100 studied in depth All of these settlements had a relatively homogenous culture Most major sites were deserted by 1700 BCE for unknown reasons Natural causes such as disaster, drought, or climate change may have been the cause Noteworthy Sites Foreign conquest or a decline in maritime trade may also have contributed Mohenjo-daro Ganweriwala Thar Indus Valley religious practices remain virtually unknown Kalibangan because little material culture has survived Harappa The civilization left much less evidence than its contemporaries No religious temples have been found Some unearthed sculptures, however, may be related to spiritual rituals These practices likely formed precursors of Buddhism and Hinduism Most figurines depict animals such as cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs Some gold, terracotta, and stone statues depict dancing women Advances in the Indus Valley civilization The civilization appears to have been quite innovative Indus Valley societies used sophisticated urban planning

48 Streets had a compass alignment in an orderly and perpendicular fashion Multi-story buildings built of baked brick served domestic and commercial purposes Cities built dockyards, warehouses, and granaries to promote maritime trade They introduced the first urban sanitation system This ancient system could have been more effective than modern Indian plumbing They had water supply systems Street sewage and drainage systems cleared waste water Households had designated bathrooms The civilization made numerous discoveries A system of standardized weights and measurements led to advancements in metallurgy They produced objects made of bronze, copper, tin, and lead Jewelry such as necklaces used shell, ceramics, and agate Soapstone beading occasionally features in these pieces Archaeologists have discovered various soapstone seals These objects have incised depictions of animals and narrative motifs Writing carved on the front has not been deciphered Mohenjo-daro Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay rediscovered Mohenjo-daro in 1922 in present-day Pakistan An Indian historian and archaeologist, he worked for the Archeological Survey of India The site forms the best preserved Indus Valley Civilization city It became an UNESCO 28 World Heritage Site in 1980 Like other Indus Valley cities, Mohenjo-daro exemplified innovative urban planning The city maintained a walled citadel area Some historians believe its wall served as flood control rather than as defense The city had a massive bathing complex, the Great Bath A myriad of rooms surrounds a sunken brick pool The bath measures 39 by 25 by 8 It likely served the purpose of ritual cleaning 28 Enrichment Fact: UNESCO, which stands for United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, was founded following the Second World War in order to promote global cooperation and understanding. For more about information about the organization:

49 Bust of a man, possibly a priest (c BCE) This freestanding sculpture was discovered at Mohenjo-daro in 1927 in an ornate building containing a niche It stands 6 7/8 tall Either steatite or soapstone comprise its material The figure has a stoic pose evoking a dignified man His identity remains unknown Formal qualities indicate the man probably had a high status The building it stood in similarly suggests wealth or importance Mohenjo-daro, however, lacked a royal or priestly class Ultimately, the artwork could be a simple portrait or something more Physical features Overall figure Self-contained, partly as free arm and chest broke off Simple, geometric form Head Striated hair and trimmed beard Flattened back of the head, where a separate hair piece e.g. bun or headdress may have been Face Full, clean-shaven upper lip Low forehead Deep and narrow half-open eyes, one of which has a lost shell inlay Long, wide noses with nostrils broken off Unnaturally curved and shell-like ears Holes drilled below suggesting a lost necklace Clothing Cloak on left shoulder with low-relief carvings o Single and double circles o Trefoil, a three-leaf clover pattern Drilled holes in circles suggest the use of a special drill to carve the figure, with chiseled details Circular band on right shoulder and head that runs down his back Finishing (when first Polychrome appearance resembling precious materials created) Alkali coating that created a white, glossy surface on heating Relief band and cloak filled with red paste

50 Buddhism Origins Buddhism originated in India It focuses on Buddha s life and teachings after his spiritual enlightenment He lived at some point between the 6 th and 4 th century BCE in India While the Buddha likely existed, his life story remains largely mythical Born in South Nepal as a prince, he had the birth name Siddhartha Gautama Siddhartha translates to He who achieves his aim Gautama refers to his family s clan name His birth year may have been 563 BCE or a 100 years later His mother dreamed of a white elephant entering her womb one night 10 months later, her son came out from her right armpit as she strolled in the palace garden He could walk and talk immediately Lotus flowers bloomed wherever he trod The Buddha relinquished his privileged life in search of enlightenment He dedicated his life to preaching the dharma An astrologer foresaw that Siddhartha would become a renunciate, abandoning his life to become a monk The king feared that depression would lead Siddhartha to give up the world He sought to give his son every pleasure instead, including three palaces Siddhartha never saw any old age, illness, or death He grew up extremely capable in every area and wed a beautiful princess Siddhartha first expressed interest in the outside world at the age of 29 years old 29 He asked to ride a chariot through the city The king had the streets cleared of any distasteful sight However, one old man escaped notice The charioteer told Siddhartha that all people age like the man he saw on the street He went out another three times Siddhartha found an ill person, a dead body, and a meditating renunciate These sights inspired him to seek out a state beyond such suffering He asked the king to let him leave for the forest His father promised anything to keep him for leaving Siddhartha asked the king to forswear death, illness, old age, and loss of fortune The king conceded he could not do so Siddhartha decided to find a state beyond the reach of life and death He said farewell to his sleeping wife and son Siddhartha wandered for six years in a servants garb and begging for alms He learned meditation However, he concluded that asceticism would not bring true freedom He finally decided to remain under a tree until he achieved his goal The May night featured a full moon Mara, the demon of desire, attacked Siddhartha He sent foul weather and his daughters, Lust, Thirst, and Discontent Mara claimed that the ground belonged to him and not Siddhartha 29 Classic quarter-life crisis.

51 Siddhartha placed his hand on the earth, which trembled in response Mara departed in defeat and Siddhartha continued to meditate Siddhartha transformed into the Buddha, awakened one He received visions of his past lives and the karmic rules He stayed under the tree for seven weeks before Brahma Sahampati came own from heaven Brahma instructed the Buddha to spread his knowledge Buddha travelled for the next 45 years throughout northeastern India He gathered a group of monks and nuns Buddha died at 80 from dysentery 30 He caught the disease from a blacksmith s meal He told the blacksmith to bury the rest of the food Buddha lay on his side between two trees that blossomed out of season He meditated deeply and entered nirvana His body lay in a coffin for seven days before being cremated on a pyre Buddhist principles Buddhism defines its central aim as achieving nirvana, a state of peace and freedom from worldly suffering It extols a dharma, law, of Four Noble Truths and an Eight-Fold Path The Eightfold Path Right understanding Right thought Right speech Right action Right effort Right mindfulness Right livelihood Right concentration The Four Noble Truths Life is suffering Desire causes suffering Desire can be overcome Follow the Eight fold Path to conquer desire Adhering to the Eight-Fold Path leads to nirvana and liberation from samsara Samsara refers to the infinite cycle of pain: life, death, and rebirth Buddhism has gained a large following over its 2500-year history The religion remains the dominant faith in several regions of Asia, including South East Asia, Myanmar, Japan, and Sri Lanka It has many branches 31, the two major ones of which are the Mahayana and Theravada This split occurred about 500 years after the Buddha s death Mahayana (newer) 32 Theravada Salvation for All Those who follow the monastic way Status of Celestial being with earthly Human model of righteous behavior Buddha manifestation Aesthetic style Complex, symbolic imagery Ascetic images meant to guide meditation Art and architecture The earliest Buddhist art comes in the form of 3 rd century BCE symbolic pillars 30 Think really, really bad case of diarrhea. 31 Some countries such as Japan have their own schools of thought, including Pure Land, Zen, and Shingon. 32 Mahayana means greater vehicle.

52 They represent an earlier Indian tradition that used complex, Persian-style capitals Emperor Ashoka s (r BCE) conversion to Buddhism spurred the development of Buddhist art He proselytized for his faith throughout India Ashoka commissioned many pillars, particularly at Buddhist monasteries He distributed the Buddha s ashes in 84, stupas across the country Buddhist art reminds disciples of eternal truths Its architecture creates a space for contemplation and devoutness The complexity of Buddhism s visual manifestations appears somewhat in contrast to Buddha s opposition to material attachments However, its idealized and sophisticated nature reflects its ultimate aim of transcendence Symbolic aspects of its art help to remind people of its various complex components These reminders include functional objects like alms bowls and other ceremonial objects, ash reliquaries, texts, sculptures, and paintings Buddhist art uses many types of materials Buddhist art materials Bronze Wood Clay Stone Paint Dry lacquer Palm leaves Birch bark Embroidered silk Ivory Jade Gold Porcelain Butter carving Sand painting Buddhist gain karma, merit, by donating to temples This notion greatly incentivized mass production of Buddhist art Buddhist practice also emphasizes repetition Temples often may have a thousand statues or a million miniature votives These needs drove the development of multiple printing The earliest types of woodblock prints dating from the 8 th century BCE come from a Korean temple Buddhist art varies greatly in scale Its most important examples have direct links to the Buddha The Buddhist canon of art Ashes, alms bowl, and staff Eight venerated sites, including o o Bodh Gaya site of enlightenment Sarnath site of first sermon Buddha s footprint o Giant markers covered with symbols in places where the Buddha trod Buddhist architecture serves various functions 33 Clearly the Buddha left behind a rather substantial pile of ashes. -Jac

53 Stupas and pagodas form places of worship Monasteries have large complexes including libraries, residences, group meditation and teaching halls, bell towers, drum towers, and image halls They form a network of holy sites Many of these sites come from the Jatakas These stories retell events from the Buddha s previous lives Their publication greatly increased the number of pilgrimage sites Monasteries and shrines grew alongside them Buddha in Art The earliest Buddha art showed Buddha symbolically Types of symbolic representations Pillars Animals Stupa/ relic mound Empty throne showing his transcendence Trees, especially the Bodhi tree of enlightenment Eight-spoked Wheel of Law symbolizing the Eight-Fold Path Buddhism remained centered on his teachings rather than his figure Buddha had already passed into invisible nirvana Representational art helped new converts to understand Buddhism better Emperor Ashoka s rule also saw a cult of relics The cult gave rise to the veneration of the physical Buddha They may show him alone or as part of a story about his life Such stories often appear four or eight at a time in relief carvings The number evokes the Four Truths and Eight-Fold Path Major stories Scene Depiction Buddha s birth Emerging from mother s side Enlightenment Serene expression, right hand touching the earth Surrounded by temptation First sermon at Sarnath Gesturing in lecture on the Wheel of Law Final victory and parinirvana Lying on his side attaining final nirvana Encounters with people outside the palace Secondary scenes Renouncing the royal court Meditating in the forest Miracle at Sravasti, multiplying into many individual bodies Early individual figures focused on Buddha s life and missionary Later depictions emphasize his divine aspect The shift resulted from the evolution of the Mahayana branch Other factors such as artist training may have contributed The first Buddha figures date from the 1 st and 2 nd century CE

54 They come from the Gandhara province in present day Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan The Kushan dynasty ruled the area It had strong ties to the west, bringing Roman artisans to its courts The artists created works in the late Hellenistic and Roman Imperial styles of Antioch and Alexandria One early representation appears on a gold coin minted under Emperor Kanishka The emperor converted to Buddhism and used the coin to demonstrate his faith Its representation resembles Western styles The head uses Greek proportions The cloth drapes like Roman Imperial togas Images became more Indian with the rise of local artisans They portrayed Buddha in rigid frontal profile Cloth drapes appear more stylized and patterned His face resembles an artificial mask Another legend states that Buddha went to heaven to preach dharma to his mother after enlightenment The King Udayana commissioned a sandalwood statue to stand in his place This Udayana Buddha has the status of being the first authentic image as well as an image carved faithful to life The best-known copy still in existence stands in a Japanese temple It dates from the late 10 th century, but many consider it the original Images depict Buddha in a variety of ways, whether seated or standing Subjects Crowned, universal figure Triumphant ruler of the world An infant taking his first step Seated or standing Postures Teaching Meditation Enlightenment Common features in Buddha images Blessing and reassuring Forms Two-dimension Three-dimension Appearance Sanghati, draped monastic robe Tight curled hair Webbed fingers Ushnisha Holding both hands to his chest pressed together Hands in lap Seated, right hand on the ground Raised right raised, palm outward Small paintings Relief cravings on stele/ rock walls Free-standing sculptures Covers both or only left shoulder Evokes the shearing of his hair during renunciation Lakshanas bodily markings of his status Lump on his head demonstrating his intelligence

55 Urna Halo or nimbus Sometimes appears as a secondary brain Gandhara artists concealed it with wavy hair or a topknot 34 Forehead mole Ancient Iranian symbol of heavenly light However, all images use a standard canon of proportions This canon became standard by the 4 th and 5 th centuries It does not seek naturalism Very broad shoulders and small waist instead give the Buddha a striking look The angula, the finger s breadth, is the basic unit of measurement It may be set according to the donor s finger Number of angulas Body part 12 Palm 9 x 12 = 108 Standing figure s height 5 x 12 = 60 Seated figure s height 4 Three parts of the face Hairline to eyes Eyes to nose s base Nose to bottom of chin Seated Buddha This figure comes from the Khyber Pass along the Silk Road between Afghanistan and Pakistan It contains gray schist The dimensions measure 43½ in height and 26 wide As a Gandhara sculpture, it stands within the tradition of Indo-Greek art The figure depicts the Buddha meditating cross-legged, the dhyana pose He folds his hands in his lap, with both palms upward and the right over the left He sits on a low throne Features of the Buddha s head Impassive demeanor Slightly swollen face Symmetrical features Smooth, flat forehead with a straight plane down the nose bridge and a central urna Full lips Half-open almond-shaped eyes Long, curved earlobes Wavy hair arranged in a ushnisha bun atop his head Flat disk halo behind head silhouetting his profile A thin robe covers his entire body 34 The guide suggests that its artists of the Greco-Roman style did not understand or found the lump distasteful; the topknot they used evokes that of Apollo

56 The folds imply a linear pattern that emphasize his form The taut fabric drapes from his shoulders and stretches across the knees Thicker folds appear at his neck and lap The robe drops below the platform onto the relief pattern below The center of the relief pattern shows two large seated images The left figure shows a Buddha mirroring the main figure, but lacking a nimbus The right figure shows a bodhisattva Bodhisattvas have reached perfection but not full enlightenment Another cross-legged bodhisattva sits on the right He is the same size as the main Buddha but holds up his right hand, likely containing a jewel These jewels symbolize the riches of the Eight-Fold Path The robe encircles his waist tightly but loosely above, leaving a bare torso Four worshippers stand at the sides of the Buddha and bodhisattva They are smaller to show their lower status and enlightenment Two worshippers stand to the left, one between the figures, and one on the right They have long, flowing robes and clasp their hands in veneration The sides of the sculpture contain a shallow relief showing the throne s drapery A lion holds up the platform on each end It mimics common Gandhara imagery of kingship The sculpture helps to guide worshippers in meditation while venerating the Buddha It shows the path from worshipper to bodhisattva to Buddha Buddhist stupas Stupa refers to a large mounded structure that originally held Buddha s relics Eight stupas originally held the reliquaries containing his ashes They stood on major sites from his life Major stupas Birthplace Place of enlightenment Four cities of miracle acts First sermon Place of death Ashoka divided the eight reliquaries among 84,000 stupa mounds These new stupas stood on other sites important to the Buddha or otherwise sacred His act made the religion more inclusive of earlier Buddhas and their followers Stupas come in five different forms related to their function

57 Stupas Relic Object Major Buddhist architectural forms Buddha s ashes or figures Possessions of important Buddhists Commemorative Celebrates important events Symbolic Votive Monastery residence Hall of worship Represents an aspect of teaching An offering, often alongside another stupa Vihara Chaitya Worshippers do not enter the stupa They instead walk clockwise around its exterior Their path follows that of the sun, aligning them with the universe This practice derives from earlier South Asian burial mounds However, Buddhism uses it to signify the parinirvana, his final death Stupas represent a three-dimensional form of the mandala, a sacred diagram of the world Each part of its structure has some symbolism Buddhist stupas Appears in Structure Name Symbolism All stupas Larger stupas Main dome on a platform Anda World mountain Pillar on top of anda Yasti World s axis Three circular disks on top of yasti Low, square fence around yasti Internal forms in the anda Chatras Three Jewels of Buddhism: Buddha, Law, and Sangha (monks) Harmika Boundaries of the heavens Mystical geometric designs e.g. Wheel of Law Larger surrounding fence - In line with Indian traditions, isolates sacred space from the worldly Gates in the main fence Toranas Appear at cardinal points Walkway ascending the platform - - Decorations generally appear carved on the outer stone, especially the toranas Some stupas have them on their railings The carvings help to educate worshippers They retell events from the Buddha s life, the Jataka, and others important to the specific stupa Symbolic humans and animals may appear Inscriptions on the stupa will invoke sacred texts or lists donations made to the stupa The Great Stupa, Sanchi, India, 3 rd century BCE The Great Stupa stands in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh The city once formed north India s economic center It also saw one of the major early monasteries during Ashoka s rule

58 Ashoka dedicated the original Great Stupa The present structure has seen several reconstructions It likely dates from the 3 rd century BCE General Taylor of the Bengal Cavalry first identified the stupa in 1818 during a military campaign The first restoration project began in 1881, with major work occurring from 1912 to 1919 Buddhist academic Albert Foucher and Sir John Marshall, Director-General of the Archeological Survey of India, led the project UNESCO listed the stupa as a World Heritage Site in 1989 A guide to the Great Stupa Complex Three large stupas, including the Great Stupa Stupa 1 Multiple temples and palaces Viharas, monastic cells Monoliths (pillars) Great Stupa Decorative scheme 50 tall Made of earth and rubble Yasti, harmika, and chatra Surrounded by large stone fence Torana gates facing compass points Split double stairway on south side of mound leading to a walkway up to the structure Stone fence imitates wood with carvings of thick posts and wide horizontal boards Geometric pattern reappears on staircase, walkway, and harmika Torana 35 gates use the pattern to decorate its borders and divide various figures Torana Added to the stupa in the 1 st century BCE along with the second story balustrade Possess carvings in high relief to increase visibility from the ground level Upper section Three horizontal architraves Narrative scenes depicting humans and real and mythical creatures Buddhist symbols such as stupas, lotus blossoms, and trees appear Framed by spiral decorations Central Links the crossbars above to the square vertical pillars below Large capitals have lions, elephants, and dwarves in high relief Bracketed by dancing women positioned diagonally o Smoothens the 90 angle from the pillars to the architraves Form a S-curve volute 35 The guide spells this as torna from this point. It appears to be a misspelling and not a different type of gate.

59 Lower section Double square pillars Carved with Jataka tales Protective spiritual figures carry symbolic objects and pose in veneration Hinduism History Hinduism is India s most practiced religion today It has highly visible practices such as roadside shrines, temples, festivals, and pilgrimages The religion comes from South Asia and developed 5000 years ago Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, 36 and South Africa 37 have large Hindu communities Hindu is a Persian term for people living beyond the Indus River However, the British adopted the term by the end of the eighteenth century They used it to designate northwest India as Hindustan, and its population the Hindoo Hinduism then came to refer to Brahmanic religion and culture Brahmans constitute India s highest caste The religion itself emerged in the Indus Valley around 2500 BCE By 1800 BCE, the region s civilization had declined Aryans invaded around 1500 BCE These nomadic Central Asians brought the Sanskrit language and the Vedas, knowledge The Vedas form Hinduism s sacred texts Acceptance of the Vedas authority can be considered a prerequisite for being Hindu They define rules for behavior and outline the pantheon of gods The Vedas are seen as being handed down by the god Brahma Sanskrit refers to them as ruseya, not of human agency, or sruti, what is heard Secondary texts have the term smrti, what is remembered These later texts drew on the Vedas to develop Hinduism The term Hinduism encompasses a very broad variety of practices, texts, and beliefs It lacks a single historical founder or central hierarchy Its polytheism includes a wide range of deities However, all its gods constitute manifestations of a singular transcendent god This ultimate god exists within all living beings and also beyond the universe Hindus show devotion, bhakti, through mediators between the sacred and mundane These mediators include icons, natural events, saints, and teachers They also respect dharma, a set of laws, responsibilities, and virtues The dharma orders the universe It differs according to a person s caste, gender, and life stage 36 Technically, Singapore has a larger practicing community as a share of its population. Hinduism has less political status in Indonesia; its practitioners are mainly found in Bali, although Hinduism has deeper roots in the country than Islam. 37 A legacy of British colonialism.

60 All Hindus believe in reincarnation, samsara Karma, the causal force, determines the course of this cycle Hindus seek salvation, moksa, from reincarnation Their beliefs therefore have much overlap with Buddhism The Muslim invasion of India in the 11 th century briefly paused Hinduism s growth Hindu art and architecture The earliest Hindu art dates from 2000 years ago These relief carvings in cave temples portray the main subject of Hindu art, its gods Later art takes much more diverse forms Varieties of Hindu art Subjects Deities Legendary tales of the gods Styles Carved, painted architecture Free-standing sculpture Small two-dimension works e.g. water color paintings Purposes Public, religious art Informal, private devotional objects Vishnu and Shiva are Hinduism s main gods 38 They appear in the Vedas in minor manifestations Shiva has the name Rudra Vishnu and Shiva later became more important They form the Trimurti, core trinity, of Hindu gods along with Brahma Vishnu Preserver Shiva Destroyer Brahma Creator All gods express the Hindu principle of multiplicity They appear in various forms to demonstrate their many powers and natures Multiple arms wield different abilities Multiple heads or hybrid forms may combine human and animal Gods also appear in the person of avatars Vishnu has 10 avatars on earth that carry out his function as savior They include Krishna, Buddha, and other people and animals Gods have distinctive traits often seen in the items they hold They may also wear unique clothing or be depicted with mounts, vahana ( vehicles ) Their bodily form and facial expressions also hint at their identity 38 The slides at give a quick overview of the major developments in Hindu theology and godly pantheon.

61 Despite this complexity, Hindu art has certain commonalities All Hindu gods have human traits and behaviors They live like royalty with many servants Religious texts lay down rules for depicting these gods Rituals must consecrate religious objects upon their completion They invite the deity to inhabit the item and grant it sacral power Religious items hence literally embody the Hindu faith The Hindu pantheon Shiva is one of Hinduism s major gods He functions as the Destroyer and represents unpredictable, destructive forces However, he can also act as a god of mercy He brings change, whether through death and devastation or by cutting ties and habits He has many manifestations Shiva s avatars Ascetic yogi on Mount Kailash 39 Somaskanda - married to Parvati with children Ganesha and Kartikeya Mahadeva Mahayogi Pashupati Nataraja - Lord of Dance Tipuravijaya - Victor of the Three Cities Chandrashekhara - Moon-Crowned Lord Bhairava Vishwanath Bhava Bhole Nath His infinite aspect, Paramashiva, cannot be imagined or venerated He manifests on the lower plane to be worshipped by humans Images of him may be abstract or representational Temples dedicated to Shiva do not place images of him as a human in their inner sanctum Instead, they use a linga, a stone pillar that represents a shaft of glorious light Other bronze sculptures surrounding the linga depict Shiva Medium sized temples have about 25 sculptures Major temples might have up to 50 sculptures Head Appearance of Shiva Vertical third eye in middle forehead Plaited braids topped with crescent moon, skull, and serpent Left ear ring or round stud with gem (female) 39 USAD does not provide the name of this avatar, although several avatars of Shiva relate to his abode there, including Kailashadhipati, Lord of Mount Kailash, and Kailashnath, Master of Mount Kailash

62 Body Objects held Right ear makara earring, a masculine lion or snake Halo at back of head Siraschakra, head-wheel Snake forms covering his body Loincloth, belt, hair ornamentation, necklaces, arm and wrist band Trident, battle-axe, or drum Konrai and unmattai flowers 40 Depicted with With deer or the dwarf Mushalagan 41 Seated next to water pot Riding the white bull Nandi Shiva represents nature s wild forces He mixes masculine and feminine attribute, as seen in his earrings Bronze temple sculpture Hindu bronze sculptures reached their peak under the Chola dynasty Many sculptures remain in use today, or have been uncovered from burial The Chola ruled from the ninth to thirteenth centuries in the Tamil South Pallava rule in the eight century saw the beginnings of bronze sculpture production The Chola had strong trade ties with the west and sold bronze works there Western merchants sent copper items and raw copper to India Indian artisans melted them down and created tradable goods Chola sculpture used the lost-wax casting technique 42 The technique creates a unique piece as the mold will be destroyed in the process Process of lost-wax casting 1. Sculpt image in mixture of hard beeswax and dammar, the shal tree s resin, heating the wax to facilitate 2. Harden the figure in cold water 3. Etch details with a sharp wooden chisel 4. Connect hands to body with wax struts, which help to stabilize and serve as channels during casting 5. Cover the wax in layers of clay 6. Heat at high temperatures until wax melts and runs out in the sprues (channels), creating a hollow clay mold 7. Heat copper with some lead and tin 8. Pour into mold 9. Break clay away once metal cools to create final bronze figure Modern bronze sculpture alters this process Chola artisans applied the initial clay layer carefully The final bronze sculpture only needed a polish before completion Now, artists no longer work the clay as finely They use a chisel on the bronze form, creating sharper detail 40 Respectively the cassia fistula, golden shower tree, and datura metel, devil s trumpet/ metel 41 A demon representing darkness and ignorance, upon which Shiva as Nataraja stands and dances. 42 Which will be very familiar to any Decathlete from last year, from the section on Poseidon/Zeus. -Jac

63 The rise of bronze sculpture coincided with a shift in Hindu rituals that required greater idol production Deities initially stood in the dark inner sanctuary of temples The god would receive devotees They had to view the deity in order to be able to receive blessings Such early sculptures did not have to be transported and could be large and heavy Around the sixth century, Hindu deities were first seen as analogous to human rulers They could take on a public appearance and preside over temple festivals Deities would be brought out of temples frequently Large stone idols no longer sufficed Wood idols likely replaced them initially The first bronzes stood 10 to 12 inches high Chola sculptures reached two to give feet in height Bronze sculptures did not appear in public bare They would be completely covered by silk, jewelry, and flower garlands Worshippers saw them amidst festival chanting, drumming, and conch shell sounds Their use forms a dynamic part of worship Nataraja, Shiva as the Lord of Dance, South India, Tamil Nadu This sculpture dates from the eleventh century, during the Chola period Nobles often gave such sculptures as temple gifts The donor would receive honors from the gods This sculpture depicts Shiva in a four-armed avatar surrounded by a ring of fire The ring of fire symbolizes the universe, which Shiva keeps in eternal motion Features of the sculpture Dimensions Body Height 44 7/16 inches Body part Position Raised left hand Tongue of flame Raised right hand Drum Lower right hand Outward-facing palm Lower left hand Points to left foot - Left foot Held in the air across his body Right foot Trods on the dwarf Mushalagan Width Depth Base 13 ¾ by 9 7/16 inches Weight 257 pounds Meaning Universe s destruction 40 1/8 inches 11 ¾ inches Relentless advance of time Reassurance that the faithful will be freed from destruction - Dwarf symbolizes darkness and ignorance

64 Garments similar to those of Hindu priests and devotees Clothing Bare torso Cloth wrapped around waist Various jewelry Scarf and serpents coiled around body Large crown holding his matted hair This sculpture represents time s cyclical nature Shiva s dance of bliss will destroy the universe in order to recreate it It has an elegant, graceful appearance despite the dance s destructiveness This tension between destruction and creation characterizes much of Hinduism Kerala mural paintings The Kerala state lies on India s southwest coast It has a renowned mural tradition Only Rajasthan contains more murals Temples, palaces, Christian churches, and even office buildings contain the murals India s hot, moist climate deteriorates wall paintings Paper and wood will fall apart over time Pollution and overpainting have also damaged the murals Paper paintings tended to survive more frequently Indian murals tend to be new or repainted Kerala is an exception in having many original murals Mural painting dates from prehistoric eras It peaked around the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries with the arrival of the Bhakti movement Thrissur, Chemmanthitta, Thodeekkalam, and Mattancherry Palace contained foremost examples of the form Bhakti practitioners believed that any Hindu could be saved regardless of caste Major writers included Melapattur Narayanan Bhattatiri ( ) and Putanam Nambudiri ( ) Murals drew from their spiritual writings Kerala murals usually illustrate narratives from myths, religion, Hindu epics, and history They contain a great variety of stylized figures with elaborate clothing Shading gives a three-dimensional, vibrant appearance to the outlines and forms Backgrounds and frames have elaborate embellishment Their borders use a system of decoration known as Pancha-mala Pancha-mala (five garlands) Bhhotha-mala Goblins and dwarves Mruga-mala Animals e.g. elephants, deer Pakshi-mala Parrot-like birds Vana-male Flowers Chitra-maal Abstract designs Mural painters used the fresco secco technique They painted directly on a dry plaster wall

65 Fresco secco 1 Create a layer of rough plaster and then smoother coating 2 Outline the image 3 Add color and shading 4 Outline the individual forms, usually in black 5 Add further details 6 Gloss the surface with a coat of resin The colors come from natural materials: minerals, oils, roots, herbs, and juices They use a Pancha-vama five-color system: red, yellow, green, black, white The paints have a rich tone with high chroma The colors symbolize their subjects guna, attributes Green represents sattva, the divinities in balance and equilibrium Rajas appear in red and yellow to show their action and impatience The murals consistency comes from their foundation in Dhyana Slokas This set of verses describes in detail the appearance of each deity Respecting these images shows reverence for the gods Muslim invaders and then British colonization caused the decline of Kerala murals Fewer artists received training in the form It underwent a revival in 1970 The Guruvayur Temple s murals suffered a major fire Temple authorities could only find a few artists to replace the murals Several schools opened to train new artists, including the temple s own Another college, the Sree Sankara Sanskit College, operates in Kaladay Modern Kerala muralists have expanded their repertoire They may use plywood, cloth, paper, and canvas Modern buildings such as hotels and Christian churches commission such murals Churches often request the Last Supper 43 The Ramayana Epic The Hindu tradition includes many major sacred texts Major Hindu texts Vedas Upanishads and Commentaries on the Vedas Brahmanas Puranas Myths and legends about Hindu deities and their characters Agamas Mantras and hymns used to worship sacred images Mahabharata epic Contains the Bhagavad Gita,a famous poem of devotion Ramayana epic poem Rama s Journey (ayana = going or advancing ) Likely written by the sage Valmiki Uses a 32-syllable meter, the anustubh Contains 24,000 verses in seven books and 500 cantos First section recounts historical court life Second section retells the Ayodhya prince Rama s quest to rescue his wife Sita from the demon-king Ravana of Lanka and the ensuing war 43 The last meal of Jesus before his crucifixion

66 The Ramayana remains popular in many forms It can be performed as poetry, drama, mime, dance, song, and puppetry Children s and folk tales, sculptures, paintings, and even comics retell the Rama Rama has become remembered as an avatar of the god Vishnu, having both human and divine aspects The epic begins with Rama s birth and childhood King Dasharatha of Ayodhya has four sons with three wives: Rama, Bharata, Lakshmana, and Shatrughna Rama marries the princess Sita The king abdicates in favor of Rama The king s wife Kaikeyi wants Rama s half-brother Bharata to be king She demands he fulfill his promise of giving her two wishes Kaikeyi asks for Rama to be exiled for 14 years and to make Bharata king The king exiles Rama to the forest, along with Sita and his half-brother Lakshmana Surpanakha, Ravana s sister, visits Rama She tries to seduce the two brothers in vain Lakshmana fights her when she attempts to kill Sita He cuts off her ears and nose Surpanakha s brother Khara then attacks the family Rama kills Khara King Ravana traps Sita and demands her hand in marriage Sita refuses to accede Rama and Lakshmana set out on a quest to rescue Sita They visit the monkey king Sugriva Sugriva lends them his greatest hero Hanuman Hanuman helps Rama and his army find Ravana s palace Rama undertakes a great battle and finally kills Ravana Rama returns after 14 years to Ayodhya and becomes king The Ramayana has significance beyond its narrative plot It has many teachings from the Veda and devotional guides, demonstrating the work of dharma It describes how kings, wives, brothers, and servants should act Rama symbolizes the ideal of love It also discusses relationships and morality It inspired many Indian art pieces, including temple facades South Indian temples to Vishnu contain bronzes of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman

67 Illustrated manuscripts, including Mughal period creations, depict the saga It also appears in the mural cycle at the Kochi Rajah s Palace Rajah s Palace The Rajah s Palace has also become known as the Mattancherry or Dutch Palace It stands in Kochi, a west coast port Kochi now has the name Cochin It contain the first European outpost in India, established by the Portuguese in 1500 The Dutch replaced the Portuguese in the mid-seventeenth century English officers took over the port in the nineteenth century Portugal built the palace for the Raja of Kochi in 1555 It served as a peace offering for having looted a nearby temple It is one of the earliest examples of architecture blending Portuguese and Indian influences The Dutch refurbished the palace in 1663, giving it the popular name Dutch Palace After further restoration in 1951, it became a centrally protected monument More recent work has been done on the site, which has hosted a museum since 1985 The museum contains royal family belongings Items in the palace museum Portraits of the Kochin kings Elaborate palanquins and doli (humandrawn, wheel-less vehicles for the nobility) Clothing and weaponry Kochin coins and stamps The palace has a traditional Kerala layout The quadrangular structure contains two stories with long interior halls and a central courtyard The upper floor has a coronation kitchen and rooms for sleeping, ladies use, and dining Its courtyard contains a temple to Pazhayannur Bhagavati This goddess serves as the royal family s patron Its murals are its most famous feature They cover over 3000 square feet of walls Most come from the 1663 renovation They appear throughout the palace s rooms and in the stairwell Most images depict Hindu deities including Shiva, Krishna, Durga, and Vishnu The narratives draw from the Purana and Sanskrit epics by the poet Kalidasa such as the Kumarasambhava

68 Detail of a Wall Painting in the Rajah s Palace This detail appears in the king s bedchamber at the southwest of the second floor Forty-eight paintings depicting the full Ramayana cover 300 square feet of wall space Dating from the seventeenth century, they are some of the earliest murals in the palace The selected area shows Rama and Lakshmana making an alliance with Sugriva Rama and Lakshmana bathed in a lake within Sugriva s territory Sugriva watched them, fearing they came from his enemy and brother Vali He told his ministers that they carried bows and arrows to kill him Hanuman goes to meet the two brothers They tell Sugriva of their plight Sugriva happily agrees to help Rama, Lakshmana, Sugriva, and Hanuman appear in the painting Rama has a distinctive green skin coloration He stands in the lower left portion of the painting, holding an arrow His face lacks expression apart from narrowed eyes This calmness reflects his notably serene character The two monkey characters have long noses and wide upper jaws Sugriva stands out with his white skin and reddish-brown face Hanuman appears in the upper left Lakshmana in the center has blue skin and wide eyes The painting melds and overlaps the characters forms It adds further complexity with surrounding additional figures and objects The painting depicts its characters with elaborate clothing and headdresses Shading of their skin creates a sense of volume Flat color blocks and strong patterns condense other parts of the image It has distinctively rich color and outlines The narrative lacks a linear direction Viewers have to carefully distinguish its many details Hindu art frequently demonstrates this enigmatic aspect

69 This section discusses Islamic influences on art in India, particularly under the Mughal dynasty. Much of the art discussed here has links to the ruling dynasty, in particular the miniature paintings and Taj Mahal. Pay attention to the context in which each art piece was created and each art form emerged, for they point strongly to the social context of the period. According to the USAD outline, 7-8 questions should come from Section III 10 questions (20%) come from Section III the USAD Art Practice Test Section III covers pgs of the USAD Art Resource Guide Indo-Islamic Art Origins Arab traders had exchanged goods with the Western coast of India for many centuries Their contacts dated from before Islam developed in the early 7 th century They brought spices and other luxury goods from India to Egypt and southern Europe Their paths crossed the Arabian, Red, and Mediterranean Seas Islam came into India through believers such as Malik Dinar (d. 748 CE) Malik Dinar was likely the first Islamic missionary in India He had been one of Muhammad s original followers He commissioned India s first mosque, Cheraman Jum ah Masjid, in 629 CE The building stands in Methala, Kerala Muslim invasions of India began in the eight th century Mahmud of Ghazni led several incursions from 1001 to 1026 in north India His troops, the Ghaznavids, looted many Indian treasures These treasures have been excavated in Ghazni, Afghanistan Muslims invaders often destroyed Indian religious monuments Islam considers figurative decorations such as those in Hindu temples as idolatrous Mu izz al-din Muhammad ( ) conquered Delhi in 1193 He also has the name Muhammad of Ghor Delhi became the core of Muslim India He commissioned the building of the Qutb complex there The complex includes Qutb Minar, a free-standing minaret Qutb deen Aibak also built the Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque in 1198 The Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque demonstrates Islam s impact on Indian culture The Qutb complex stands on former Indian template sites Islamic invaders destroyed much Indian culture An iron pillar in the mosque also symbolizes Islam s superiority It comes from a 4 th century BCE temple to Vishnu However, it also concedes to local practices The mosque has an Islamic layout but local form and style

70 Islamic Indian Decorative brickworking Simpler stone masonry Arches and vaults Flat roof, simple arch corbels in the courtyard s decorative screen No figurative representation Natural foliage and calligraphy carvings drawing on Hindu and Jain architecture The mosque demonstrates a hybridity of Indian and Islamic influences It exemplifies much of Islamic Indian art Mughal dynasty The Mughals came from the Sunni sect of Islam They descend from warlord Timur ( ) and Mongol Genghis Khan (1162[?]- 1227) They ruled India from the sixteenth to mid-nineteenth century The empire co-existed with Islamic dynasties in Safavid Persia and Ottoman Turkey Timur has the names Timur the Lame and Timerlane He founded the Timurid Dynasty, ruling Turkish-Mongolian tribes in Central Asia and beyond He sought to restore Genghis Khan s empire Timur formed the most direct influence on the Mughals However, their name comes from a corruption of Mongol Their reach never extended as far as that of their predecessors However, they built Islam s finest court They founded government centers in Agra, Delhi, and Lahore Their rule saw relative peace and prosperity The main exception to this stability came during times of succession The Mughals did not subscribe to primogeniture, or inheritance by the first-born son They used the principle of ya takht ya takhta, the throne or the coffin Babur, the tiger aka Zahir ud- Din Mohammed r Sons would fight for the throne after their father s death 44 Humayun r Ruler Notable features Learned of Hindustan s wealth as a child Invaded India in 1526, defeating north India s Afghan king Sultan Ibrahim, by using gunpowder Detested everything about India but its wealth its social customs, its art, its food, and its architecture 45 Forced into Persian exile by Sher Shah Sur in If you ve ever watched any historical Chinese/Korean drama, approximately 50% of the plot involves an evil mother trying to ensure that her son is first in line for the succession by blackmailing every other royal sibling. -Jac 45 He even complains about the dogs! What a nit-picker. -Jac

71 Sher Shah Shur r Akbar r Jahangir aka Salim r Shahjahan aka Khurram r Aurangzeb r Saw the Shah Tahmash s increasing distaste towards paintings, and invited the painters to return with him to India Restored to power in 1555, but died soon after when he fell down the steps of his library in Delhi Introduced many economic and political reforms Standardized Mughal currency and land taxation Became ruler at 12 years old, with a nobleman serving as regent Took sole control after 1560 Solidified and spread Mughal rule in northern India Ensured religious tolerance and patronized the arts Relied mainly on his son Khurram to rule Married a Persian widow, Nur Jahan, in 1611 Fought Nur Jahan for power after Jahangir s death Presided over the Mughal golden age Lost his throne to Aurangzeb after suffering illness in 1657 Imprisoned until his death in 1666 Took the throne from Shahjahan in 1658 Ruled poorly, starting the dynasty s decline The British took advantage of Mughal instability to conquer India in the nineteenth century They captured the last ruler in 1858 The Mughal dynasty has been compared to the French House of Bourbon Both families had great wealth, political craft, and were enthusiastic patrons of art Artists formed a major part of Mughal court life Miniature painting Miniature painting developed in Persia in the 13 th century It reached its height in the fifteenth and sixteenth century The style influenced other Islamic miniature forms Indian miniature painting primarily drew on Persian artists These artists left Iran with Humayun However, Mughal artists developed their own styles and subjects Miniature painting often features in Islamic books and albums Few Mughal works survive The area s damp climate damages paper India did not use vellum, the material of western Europe s illuminated manuscripts Many books became disassembled during times of political and economic instability Some albums comprise pages and texts taken from other albums The Mughal government often created the paintings through mass-production Different artists had different roles Role Features of their work

72 Outline imagery Paint faces or landscapes and architecture Apply color and finishes Various sizes of images, from a full page to border decorations Carpet page sheets covered with embellished patterns resembling Persian carpets Frequent subject matter included: Literature, e.g. epics, biographies, Quran Emperor s life, and political/ military achievements Court ceremonies Animals and nature Mineral-based pigments e.g. ultramarine, cinnabar, and yellow ochre that create rich, lasting colors Embellished with gold and silver Bound in precious materials e.g. lacquer, fine leather Calligraphy Often created by higher-ranking scribes who signed their work Covered topics such as poems, religious texts, and scientific works These paintings often contain human and animal figures, especially in private art The Quran does not explicitly ban such depictions Later Islamic treatises took a more negative attitude Traditional Islamic miniatures use a flattened aerial perspective They do not employ shadows or shading to give value or dimension to their subjects Architecture appears similarly simplified Artists might remove or tilt walls to show interiors Figures and animals appear in profile Important people may have a larger scale Paintings imply distance simply by showing the figure higher in the picture

73 Realism does not form an important element Instead, the paintings emphasize detailing in their textiles, architecture, and landscape Mughal miniatures demonstrate the influence of European art European trading colonies took root in west India in the sixteenth century They brought western prints and other art Mughal artists incorporated techniques including shading and atmospheric perspective Europeans also collected Mughal miniatures Rembrandt van Rijn, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and William Morris gathered and copied the paintings Victorian, Art Nouveau and later artists continued to be interested in the practice Mughal miniature began to prosper under Akbar His royal workshop housed over 100 artists They illustrated classical Persian literature and the Hindu epic Mahabharata Akbar had this epic translated from Sanskrit into Persian He commissioned books about his and his ancestor s good deeds These books could reach 500 pages with over 100 miniature paintings They contain rules for painting Mughal rulers Patna s Drawings Patna s Drawings comes from Shahjahan s rule 46 It reinforces the tradition of honoring Mughal kings in painting Such works generally came about through royal commission They had the name of muraqqa These albums acted as private luxury objects The emperor and his friends or family could peruse them They formed part of the imperial library inherited by later generations Surprisingly, only Patna s Drawings survives from this mid-seventeenth century collection with its pages and binding intact The Mughal library lost the other works Nadir Shah of Persia looted New Delhi in 1739 Antique dealers bought the rest in the nineteenth century The albums became lost or disassembled, altered, and rebound Prince Dara-Shikoh commissioned the album in 1633 He presented it to his wife Nadira Banu Begum in 1642 The British Library owns the album at present Francis Douce ( ) donated the album to the Bodleian Library He acted as the British Museum s Keeper of Manuscripts 46 The guide calls Shahjahan Akbar s ancestor rather than descendant at this point.

74 He left his collection to the Library Most albums used a similar format and style Imperial seals and calligraphy that salutes the emperor Portraits depict the ruler, his ancestor and family, and other important figures and holy men They appear according to the court hierarchy Calligraphy augments the portraits Natural imagery also appears, particularly botanic images Foliage often decorates the page borders Patna s Drawings contains 41 paintings, not all of which come from Shahjahan s workshop Thirty-seven calligraphy pieces appear in the album, several from Mīr Alī-alkātib in 1530 The album includes a narrative poem, Tuhfat alahrar, The Gift to the Noble The Persian poet Jami wrote this poem in It contains 20 moral parables on religious authority Jami wrote it for the leader of Naqshbandi, his Sufi order The binding consists of lacquer Its interior and exterior boards have floral portraits The Emperor Shahjahan Riding, with the Aftabi or Sunshade Held Over His Head, seventeenth century Because it is a portrait of the emperor, this images is one of the album s most important It uses watercolor and gilt on paper The page is 10 1/3 by 6 3/4 It shows Shahjahan on a large brown horse, with a broad landscape backdrop The horse has its front hooves slightly off the ground This common technique serves to raise the ruler s status He calmly holds the reins with one hand His stance symbolizes his power in managing his steed Horse Shahjahan Attendant Elements of The Emperor Shahjahan Riding Jeweled bridle and rich carpet saddle Decorated, braided mane Feather on its head Sheer white fabric on its reins Gold, floral tunic over a tight long-sleeved white shirt Red silk trousers with gold patterning Transparent white fabric of skirt and on his jeweled turban Jewels around waist and neck Right hand holding a long thin spear; bow and arrows at waist Holds aftabi, a sunshade consisting of a long pole with a flat, tear-dropped paddle at its end, above the emperor

75 Landscape Primarily white clothing mirroring the emperor s Green and red striped pants Simple color contrasts with the dark horse and emperor s vibrant clothing Rolling green hills in background Clouds shown as broad color strokes alongside a rainbow Marsh at image bottom containing reeds and other plants Four white birds (herons or egrets) Composition Unrealistic scale and depth o Sunshade tilted towards the viewer flattens the image s perspective o Marsh scene shown in smaller scale Servant and mount cut off at the edge; Shahjahan in center Figures in profile moving towards the right of image Slightly raised perspective Border Red, green, and gold interior frame Exterior foliage border in grisaille simple gray and brown Wider on left than right, creating an off-center image to provide space for binding The painting emphasizes Shahjahan s importance and underscores his status at court He rules a beautiful country He has rich clothing and horses, as well as servants to fulfill his needs The painting s function as propaganda gave it its importance at the court Carpets Islamic carpet making Turkish nomads in Central Asia likely invented the knotted wool rug about 2,500 years ago Russian archaeologists found a 5 th century BCE carpet with Turkish knots in 1949 This carpet comes from a Scythian burial mound 2000 miles northeast of Iran It uses the basic pattern of a broad field with border decoration The rugs likely served initially as a protective cover for their tent and hut floors They kept out cold and sound, increased grip, and served as a soft seat Rugs also provided aesthetic enhancement Rugs could be used as dowries and state gifts Similar textiles appear in objects such as saddle bags, cinches, trunk covers, and jug holders However, the main surviving examples come from luxury works Carpets proved useful for kneeling during Islamic religious practices Some carpets contain an arched mirab niche at their top that points to Mecca

76 They give the carpet an orientation Other prayer carpets have decoration mirroring their mosque or other famous mosques Wool and cotton dyed with minerals and compounds generally comprise the weave Carpet-weaving process 1. Loop weft (widthwise) fibers over and under warp (lengthwise) fibers 2. Attach warp to upper and lower loom beams to keep fibers taut and mark off the carpet s shape 3. Weave weft onto warp to create a grid for a basic carpet Persian qāli additional steps 4. Loop or hook additional tufts, known as the pile, onto warps between each weft strand 5. Beat down pile with a heavy comb to tighten and smoothen the weave 6. Trim down pile to smooth the carpet and show the carpet s color patterning High-quality rugs have dense piles, with up to 300 to 350 knots per square inch Such carpets will be very dense and durable They also have a consistent color scheme Their decorations demonstrate careful composition Carpets usually have ornate decorations A pattern may repeat across the entire carpet Others have a medallion with pendants in the center, other decorations, and outer borders Their corners incorporate unique solutions to a design problem Weavers must create continuous border patterns over sharp, right-angle turns The schemes might be geometric and rectilinear or fluid and curvilinear They often draw on other arts Rugs in India India has adopted this foreign practice and become a major modern-day carpet producer The nation s warm climate obviates the need for rugs

77 They serve primarily produced also for decorative means Akbar introduced rug making in the late sixteenth century He brought in Persian carpet makers These experts created models almost identical Safavid carpets A distinctive style emerged based on the Mughals desire for natural imagery They often have deep coloration with central medallions Their signature aspect includes curvilinear floral patterns with arabesque lines These floral designs reached their acme under Jahangir He fell in love with Kashmir s flower on a spring 1620 visit Mughal carpet-making prospered especially under Shahjahan The Victoria and Albert Museum (London) and Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) have the largest current collections Indo-Persian Carpet with Medallions, c This carpet has a wool pile on a cotton base It measures 37 by 12 feet The carpet remains in prime condition, with its rich colors still visible Robert Lehman willed it and several other carpets to the Metropolitan in 1969 This carpet studied as an art piece appears differently from its natural context Images of the carpet depict it as though hung on a wall Actual users would see it from above when walking across and around it It projects opulence in line with its rulers luxurious taste Colors Decoration Central zone Features of Indo-Persian Carpet with Medallions Burgundy, gold, dark blue and black Accents: light blue, cream, greens and browns Balance of dark areas in the center and border, and bright gold that stands out Floral, with arabesque curves across entire field Two-dimensional forms with flat color blocks Three large medallions dark blue in the middle, golden above and below Framed by four gold curved lines reaching from the vertical sides to the center

78 Background Corners Main border Burgundy in color Floral motifs of flowers, petals and leaves Symmetrically arranged along the vertical, surrounding the central forms Light blue fans arabesque curves in line with the scheme and angular shapes that parallel the border Floral scroll Repeating shape with alternating dark and light colors Rhythm of border unifies carpet pattern Outer borders Two frames of miniscule flowers Metalwork Indian metalwork Metal objects appear in all Muslim social class Only manuscripts and fine textiles remained confined to the wealthy Mass-produced objects used cheaper metals Royal houses used silver and gold and included ornate decorations A great variety of metal objects date from this period More metal objects remain in museums compared to carpet weavings Human destruction represents a greater threat to non-copper metals People often melt down metal items, especially those in silver and gold Copper items therefore tend to survive more often Metalwork involves various processes Some regions have unique objects, shapes and decorations Features of Indian metalwork Techniques Casting, hammering, turning, and spinning Inlaying of Engraved pattern with metals hammered inside embellishment Frequently uses silver, gold, copper, and black organic compounds Produces color and contrast Decoration Geometric Floral Figural e.g. animals (lions), birds (eagles and hawks), mythical creatures (sphinxes and griffins) Banquet and hunting scenes Calligraphy Kufic (angular) or naskhi (cursive) Good wishes, blessings, praises of the object, Quranic verses, prayers Banded surfaces on which inscriptions read right to left or counterclockwise Bidriware Mughal metalwork drew heavily from Persian influences It likely utilized workshop production as well Some artisans would create the overall shape

79 Others did ornamentation and inlay work They often use floral motifs Some animal and humans appear in landscape pieces Others have Iranian-style inscriptions This metalwork technique originated in Bidar, a city in the Deccan in south-central India Birdiware technique 1. Cast alloy of zinc, copper, tin, and lead 2. Inlay the object with silver or sometimes brass and gold 3. Coat with a mud paste containing the rare mineral sal ammoniac 4. Remove and polish the piece Finished pieces have a dark, matte surface against which a bright inlay stands out Bidriware became popular in the north in the eighteenth century It commonly served to create hookahs or water pipes that had a bell or sphere shape Pieces used abstract, floral motifs Tobacco became common during this period Many metal, glass, and ceramic pipes survive Tobacco in India Tobacco became a major source of income for India within a few decades of its introduction Portuguese sailors likely brought it to India from the new world at the end of the sixteenth century Its first harvest dates from 1605 on the Deccan Plateau India remains a top tobacco producer Its use spread throughout Indian society under the Mughals Akbar received his first pipe from nobleman Asad Beg He enjoyed the tobacco, though his doctor banned him from making it a habit Asad Beg recounts the experience with particular detail about the pipe and other equipment He calls them handsomely decorated with jewel and enamel Smoking paraphernalia already had become a luxury good Jahangir attempted to ban the practice in 1617 Smoking still causes many health issues in India

80 Some 40% of its cancers have smoking-related causes Base for a Water Pipe This bidriware object uses silver and brass inlay The Asian Art Museum in San Francisco owns this pipe It stands 7 5/8 in height and 6 3/4 in diameter A squat ball forms its basic shape, with a flared lip at the top to attach the pipe stem Stems usually utilized stainless steel, brass, or tin The ball itself remained hollow, to contain the water that filtered tobacco smoke The base has many foliage, architectural, and animal decorations It mostly uses silver with some brass accenting The central portion shows a multi-story structure with niches The niches contain round vases highlighted by golden brass inlay The pavilions evoke chini khanas, china rooms These popular structures often had niches displaying objects like China porcelain South Asian courts valued these blue and white items Mughals displayed porcelain in such rooms The main pavilion has stylized animals in profile on its side Both animals face outwards but look backwards to face the pavilion The left animal has short ear and tail The right animal has a long tail and striped skin Flowers, vines, and leaves fill the rest of the pipe base This density exemplifies Islamic art s horror vacui, the abhorrence of empty space in art The top and bottom bands contain abstract decorations The forms include leaves, chevrons, and dots The upper lip has a miniature form of the chini khana A bird appears in foliage background, with the same posture as the pavilion s animals This pipe uses unusual architecture and animal motifs However, its bright ornamentation against the dark form exemplifies the bidriware style Mughal Architecture Overview Mughal rulers sponsored ambitious architecture They demonstrated the dynasty s power to the entire population Smaller luxury objects could be viewed only by palace residents The structures drew on Persian, Islamic, and Indian styles Akbar s commissions had more longevity Early Mughal buildings used post-and-lintel techniques Most had white marble or sandstone foundations

81 Ruler Babur Humayun Architectural legacy Timurid-style gardens walled grounds with many water features e.g. pools, fountains, running water Only Rambagh in Agra, on the Yamuna River s east bank, survives 1532 floating palace on the Yamuna (destroyed) Akbar Humayun s tomb in Delhi (1564) Agra fort ( ) Great Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri (1571) Jahangir s era saw more sophisticated mosque and tomb forms The 1619 Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir developed on the style of Babur s gardens However, Shahjahan commissioned the most important Mughal buildings Shahjahan had many talents, including Quranic calligraphy, singing, and architecture He helped to design Jahangir s projects and took an active role in his own commissions Building Site Year Mosque of Wazir Khan Lahore Red Fort Delhi Pearl Mosque Delhi Taj Mahal Agra His buildings had a notable attention to detail despite their imposing size They had balanced proportions that created a delicate, pleasurable effect The Taj Mahal remains his most famous legacy in scale and beauty The Taj Mahal: background The Taj Mahal does not simply refer to the central white mausoleum but to the entire complex The tomb stands within a garden and originally included areas cross the river The Taj Mahal symbolizes enduring love Shahjahan built the tomb for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal Chosen One of the Palace Her original name was Arjumand Banu Begam They legendarily met at the Royal Meena Bazaar, next to the harem, in 1607 A yearly contrary day allowed lower class people to enter this private market Nobles would act as the shopkeepers Prince Khurram approached his wife s silk and glass bead stall to ask the price of a large glass She responded that it was a diamond that cost 10,000 rupees Khurram bought the glass, departed, and then asked her hand in marriage the next day This love match constituted something almost unheard of at the time They only married a few years later on March 27, 1612 Khurram had to marry the Persian princess Quanari Begam first 47 Mumtaz Mahal possessed many attractive qualities, including beauty, education, and noble birth 47 In the time-honored tradition of marrying for power and not love, presumably. See also: Paul Atreides. -Jac

82 She acted as Shahjahan s advisor after he became ruler on February 4, 1628 The court knew her for her charity and compassion Their marriage lasted 19 years, until she died in childbirth in 1631 They had 14 children, seven surviving into adulthood She legendarily asked Shahjahan to build the Taj Mahal on her deathbed She asked him to make it express the power of love The Taj Mahal does not actually represent most Indian architecture It ironically represents India despite being a Muslim tomb built for a Persian wife Its name means Crown of Palaces, evoking Mumtaz Mahal s name However, it originally had the name building of the illuminated tomb, holy tomb, or building of the pure tomb 48 Original Islamic tombs had much simpler forms than Mughal ones Muhammad stated that he did not want an elaborate tomb He received burial under the floor of his house His house became known as the first mosque, inspiring the tradition of burial within mosques The Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid ibn Abd al-malik built the Mosque of the Prophet on this site in 707 Large mausoleums continued to be seen as distasteful Muslims who did so might include religious elements or place it next to another religious building to justify its grandeur Tomb towers dominated after the eleventh century They mimicked Turkish tents with a cylinder base topped by a conical roof The Taj Mahal uses the form of a pavilion instead Islamic gardens often included such pavilions to provide shade They evoke the Quranic garden of paradise Shade symbolizes heaven s blessings Taj Mahal: analysis This complex in Agra spreads over 55 acres It includes large gardens, other tombs including Shahjahan s, and the Taj Ganj market The tomb does not stand in the center but at the end, facing the Yamuna riverbank The other end of the complex contains its entrance gate Most views show the tomb from this perspective The broad paths and reflecting pools direct the viewers attention to the distant tomb Two smaller red sandstone buildings flank the Taj Mahal The western building contains a mosque The eastern building formed a jawah, answer, that balanced the mosque aesthetically It mimicked the mosque s outer form The buildings contrast the tomb in color and size but lend cohesion to the complex They have white dome echoing the tomb s and similar floral reliefs Pavilion tombs usually have a basic square shape to ensure consistent sizing The size of the domes that could be constructed limited their stature 48 These terms translate several different names: holy tomb for rauza-i maqqadas, illuminated tomb for rauza-i munauwara, and pure tomb for rauza-i mutahhara.

83 Islamic architects developed means to allow taller structures Innovations in Islamic tombs Double domes that had more strength Elongated drums to increase height Minarets buttressing the building foundation Smaller proportions to make the building appear taller Mughal tombs tend to use an octagonal foundation instead Their gardens often used such shapes to evoke the Quran s eight paradises, hasht bihisht The building has a corbelled double dome resembling a balloon in shape It stands on a tall drum atop the double-story, flat-roof octagonal base The central dome has four smaller domes surrounding it The roof contains small minaret-shaped spires at each corner Several pointed arches raise the platform The low platform has four tall minarets at each corner A dado frieze covers the building s interior and exterior It contains flowering vegetation in low relief on the lower walls The sandstone buildings have similar decorations The tomb also contains carved inscriptions, mainly Quranic verses The exterior of the building received more attention than its mostly empty interior It strives to make the dome appear to float atop the platform Its architects used mathematical principles to plan the structure These details create the structure s balance and elegance Excluding the minarets, the building has an equal width and height Its dome has the same height as the platform Furthermore, its hidden stairway provides no apparent entrance to the dome The architects identity remains unknown Ustad (master) Amad Mir Abdul Karim Possible architects of the Taj Mahal Mathematician and architect Architect who had served Jahangir Mulla Murshid Shirazi Later architect of Delhi Mughal palaces Shahjahan probably conceptualized the overall design The architects ensured solid engineering Wells for the dome s load-bearing piers compensate for the riverbank s slope The Taj Mahal develops and perfects Humayun s tomb The latter has the same shape but less exact proportions It also uses polychrome decoration instead of the Taj Mahal s marble

84 The Taj Mahal s cream marble increases its visibility It also appears yellow, bright white, or blue depending on the lighting It symbolizes the Throne of God that appears above Paradise on the Day of Judgment This idea draws from Quranic descriptions The Throne of God constitutes the most sacred burial place, signifying Shahjahan s love for his wife The Taj Mahal has not always possessed this elevated status The Yamuna River floods seasonally Its upkeep became neglected after the Mughal dynasty s decline Desecration of the tomb and overgrown gardens led to plans to dismantle the tomb during the colonial period The proposed project would send the marble to England However, no funders could be found, saving the tomb The complex underwent restoration in the early twentieth century It has become a UNESCO World Heritage Site and India s most popular tourist attraction It receives 60,000 visitors weekly

85 This section demonstrates the modernization of Indian art through the lens of British colonialism, with the artworks in this section all depicting essentially Occidental subjects (apart from the westernized photograph of Ram Singh). The Lodge and church in particular stand as examples of Great Britain s complete dominance over India, right down to the buildings they constructed. According to the USAD outline, questions should come from Section IV 14 questions (28%) come from Section IV on the USAD Art Practice Test Section IV covers pgs of the USAD Art Resource Guide Colonial Art and Architecture Overview Alexander the Great of Macedonia established the first trade links between India and the west in 326 BCE Europe especially valued Indian spices and textiles Ancient Rome built trade ties with India that contributed to the Kushan Dynasty s development European colonialism began at the end of the fifteenth century Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut, on India s southwestern coast At the same time, Christopher Columbus landed in North American in 1492 and deemed its indigenous people Indians The Netherlands, France, and England followed suit by the early seventeenth century Competition for the Indian spice trade drove the ensuing Age of Discovery The term refers to the main era of European oceangoing and exploration France and Britain fought for dominance in the eighteenth century The French had the upper hand in the south by the middle of the century The British defeated them soundly in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and 1761 Battle of Wandiwash The British Raj governed India from 1858 to 1947 Raj means rule in Hindi British leaders gained influence through the remaining Indian leaders The British provided the princes with protection and other support India became the jewel in the British crown of empire A short and incomplete history of British India 1600 East India Company (Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading in the East Indies) formed Owns monopoly over trade in India, and permitted to exercise juridical, military, monetary, and territorial fiat The guide quotes this in full as acquire territory, coin money, command fortresses and troops, form alliances, make war and peace and exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction.

86 East India Company begins to send spices, dyes, raw silk, and undyed cloth to England, the Ottomans, and Africa 1784 India Act passed; establishes board of commissioners to oversee Company Joint governance by crown and company gives former ultimate authority Company monopolies begin to weaken 1833 Charter Act passed to extend the East India Company s original charter Makes Indians eligible for any government appointment 1853 Open competition for Indian Civil Service 1858 Queen Victoria transfers India from company to crown rule 1876 Queen Victoria becomes Empress of India 1947 British empire withdraws from India Partition into India and Pakistan Maharajas Several rulers supplanted the Mughal Empire in its decline The British brought most of these kingdoms under their rule by the 1840s They termed these princes maharajas, which means great king in Sanskrit Maharajas acted as purely nominal rulers under the British They had some powers such as over taxation and culture Many maharajas adopted Western styles of clothing and behavior and spoke English They had little interest in opposing the English The English gave them power under the guise of traditional forms However, they also frequently interfered in the princely states Some maharajas lost their kingdoms to suit British political purposes Maharajas formed the Chamber of Princes in 1921 to communicate and negotiate with Britain Most of the princes signed the Instrument of Accession in 1947 The document acceded to absorption within India and Pakistan Surviving princes still act as royal functionaries and standard-bearers of regional identity Impact of colonialism British rule established efficient administration in India, including a postal service and telegraphs British projects include railways, highways, and canals However, their policies reflected an assumption of English superiority Governor-General Lord William Bentinck (r ) introduced an education policy in 1813 It sought to instruct Indians in English literature and science T.B. Macaulay said that one shelf of English literature was the equal of all India and Arabia s literature The British also made English the official language rather than Persian Despite the 1833 Charter Act, few Indians received government positions They mainly occupied subordinate and technical jobs until after World War I The building of British government houses and churches affected the Indian landscape Cricket greens testify to the importation of India s current most popular sport Some British scholars studied and recorded ancient Indian art and history

87 Government houses The earliest British buildings in India served commercial functions for the East India Company However, later eighteenth century buildings show Britain s imperial mission Calcutta and Madras evolved sophisticated skylines British architecture sought to evoke ancient Greece and Rome and medieval England Their democratic example helped to further the civilizing mission Most buildings come from self-taught, amateur architects and military engineers They relied on pattern books, reference tomes, and other architectural texts The Government Houses served as the homes of the Governors-General, Governors, and Lieutenant-Governors These official representatives governed and held official functions at their houses Henry Irwin is one major architect of the period January 21, 1841 Henry Irwin s life Born in Tarbett, Country Kerry, Ireland, to his namesake father, an archdeacon 1866 Joins the Public Works Department in Ceylon 1868 Moves to India 1871 Marries Henrietta Helen Irwin, who bears four children: twins Henrietta Elizabeth Anne Cairns and Helen Frances Mary Bulteel, and sons Harloe Alfred Tayloe O Callaghan and Henry Robert John Bloomfield Works in Shimla, designing the Army Headquarters, P.W.D. Secretariat, post and telegraph offices, Foreign Office, Rippon Hospital, and Viceregal Lodge 1922 Returns to Ireland; dies that same year Irwin built many structures in Pachmari, Shimla, Chennai, and Mysore The Viceregal Lodge This lodge is currently called Rashtrapati Niwas It originally housed the British Viceroy Shimla formed one of 80 hill stations built after 1815 in the Himalayan foothills The government moved there during the summer Shimla functioned as the summer capital from 1864 The Lodge replaced the Peterhof residence, which Lord Lytton had condemned Lytton s successor Lord Dufferin ( ) commissioned the building He took an active role in planning and overseeing the building from 1880 However, his term ended soon after the building s completion in 1888 The lodge adapts English Renaissance architecture It blends Elizabethan and Jacobean styles, which John Betjeman terms Jacobethan

88 The building uses medieval European elements It has a large tower above its main entrance The roof line contains crenellation and spires Local limestone and sandstone create a blue-gray exterior Arcades on both floors enclose verandas It has little suggestion of its Indian location The interior contains a large entrance hall surrounded by an upper gallery The main rooms lie off the gallery, which can be accessed by a large teak staircase The dining room has panels of 10 feet high Strapwork moldings show the heralds of India s Governors-General and Viceroys Many occupants thought it rather gloomy and somber However, it does use modern elements such as electric lights and an indoor tennis court The Ministry of Education now uses the Lodge for the Indian Institute of Advanced Study It has also been occupied by the Central Public Works Department, the Himachal Pradesh High Court, and the Himachal Pradesh University Two-Dimensional Art Photography in India Western observers had long been interested in depicting India Illustrated books had appeared since the late eighteenth century Landscape painters Thomas and William Daniells travelled to India for this purpose They published 144 large aquatint prints in Oriental Scenery from They issued 50 more prints in A Picturesque Voyage to India, by Way of China (1810) The East India Company also commissioned illustrations Colin MacKenzie surveyed south India from 1783, mapping it for trade purposes Photography in India dates from around 1839 The Company sponsored the earliest works for military, mapping, and public works projects Photography societies emerged by the 1850s The Journal of the Photographic Society of Bombay first appeared in 1855 Commercial firms included Johnston & Hoffman, Burke, Sache, T.A. Rust, and Bourne & Shepherd Bourne & Shepherd forms one of the oldest photography firms in the world It became an authority on nineteenth century India and still exists today Charles Shepherd likely acted as printer and distributer Bourne found much more fame as photographer, exhibiting his work across Europe He published reports in the British Journal of Photography from 1863 to 1870 They showed his expeditions to the higher Himalayas in Tibet and Kashmir

89 A History of Bourne & Shepherd Bourne born into a farming family in Mucklestone, Shropshire Bourne joins a bank and takes up photography; begins traveling in England to photograph, lecture, and writer 1862 Arthur Robertson and Charles Shepherd found Shepherd & Robertson in Agra 1863 Samuel Bourne leaves his job and moves to India; sets up Howard & Bourne in Shimla with William Howard 1864 Charles Shepherd moves to Shimla Robertson leaves his firm Shepherd joins Howard, Bourne & Shepherd 1865 Bourne wins two gold medals at Bengal Photographic Society exhibition 1866 Howard leaves the firm, which becomes Bourne & Shepherd 1870 Bourne returns to England and sells his stake in the firm Bourne starts a cotton plant with his brother in Nottingham and switches to watercolor painting 1912 Bourne dies in England Studio Portrait of Ram Singh of Jaipur The colonial era saw many photographs of the maharajas Linnaeus Tripe and other artists pictured them in everyday life Tripe photographed Raja Ramachandra Tondiman at a durbar (assembly) sitting under a canopy and surrounded by servants He also photographed him on his working throne Such photographs had more than documentary purpose They reflected British ideas and feelings about Indian civilization The studio portrait of Ram Singh presents him in a western manner Ram Singh acted as Jaipur s maharaja from 1835 to 1880 He stands in a shallow room with a pattern rug and a drapery on the right Ram Singh has his right hand on his hip and left hand on a large book that rests on a small, draped table The raja wears a long robe of silk with embellished trim and a belted skirt However, he wears western shoes and pants He has a large beaded necklace and some hair decorations The raja has carefully groomed his beard, moustache, and goatee The photograph shows rulers in a much more ordinary context He resembles any nineteenth century portrait subject with few markers of royalty

90 While his pose in earlier times demonstrated a sense of authority, it became common by the colonial period The leaning, contrapposto arrangement could stand up to the long exposure times needed This photograph belongs to a larger group of Indian royal photographs Stephen Wheeler compiled them into the Royal Photographic Album in the British Library It contains 101 photographs, mainly on cards Many contain descriptions under or behind them These portraits come from the durbars of Lord Lytton in 1877 and Lord Curzon in Delhi in 1903 Wheeler may have been related to J. Talboys Wheeler The latter organized the 1877 durbar and published The History of the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi (1877) This albumen print measures 5 1/3 inches by 3 2/3 inches Kalighat painting Kalighat painting developed in Calcutta at the start of the nineteenth century This cheap style of watercolor painting saw much publicity in both India and European international art exhibitions However, it died out in the twentieth century, replaced by woodcuts and engravings Subsequently, cheap lithographs became the main form of urban art These mechanically produced prints remain popular in Kalighat Artisans from rural Bengal villages developed the style when they migrated to Calcutta, at the time India's capital They had worked as scroll painters and potters and therefore set up studios in the vicinity of the Kalighat temple This temple had been rebuilt in 1809 and become a major pilgrimage destination Kalighat painting evolved to serve this group of consumers Europeans often purchased their work as well, seeing them as exotic keepsakes John Lockwood Kipling ( ) became one such collector He worked as an art teacher and curator but spent most of his life in India He donated his collection to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London Russia and Czechoslovakia also possess major collections A variety of subjects appear in Kalighat paintings, particularly Hindu deities and Calcutta They evoke the work of French Impressionism and Japanese ukiyo-e in recording the changing society they worked in Kalighat painters used bold outlines and forms The paintings have a flat dimensionality with minimal background and shading for volume Ajit Ghose compares the style to Chinese calligraphy Painters worked quickly and decisively, using minimal strokes They had to do so to serve customers on the spot as well as work with fast-drying watercolors The paintings used milled paper, usually vertical rectangles Artists known as patuas developed an assembly line procedure to create the paintings

91 Kalighat painting 1. Main artist (usually male) creates image outline 2. Women color in the form, one color at a time with the skin and face painted first 3. Fine details depicted 4. Silver highlights or white pigment applied Four or five women could produce 200 to 300 paintings per hour Key artists and workshops remain anonymous, with no clear evolution of style or hallmark Englishman on Tiger Hunt Kalighat painters and Indian photographers created images of the British colonial class Their tone differs according to their audience Creating artworks helped Indians understand the unfamiliar British Englishman on Tiger Hunt is one example It has the dimensions of 17 by 11 The Victoria and Albert Museums owns it as part of a collection of 650 Kalighat paintings It depicts a man on an elephant, representing a Westerner enjoying a leisure outing The subject likely comes from an European print The style of dress evokes the 1820s and 1830s The Englishman wears a top hat and long, green cut-away coat The coat has dark green striping with silver spots, and a red collar He also wears white pants and black shoes with a low heel The man sits on a red carpet saddle with silver dots and yellow trim The dusty blue elephant has a woven cloth on its head It appears to tread on the yellow tiger with its left front leg The tiger turns its head to look towards the hunter above Its open mouth shows its sharp teeth and curved tongue The simple rendering shows minimal value 50 in the hat s hatching and the elephant s dark outline The figures appear awkwardly stacked atop each other without depth They stand out against the white paper without any background All the figures face towards the left The painting does not accurately depict a typical scene The tiger s pelt is inaccurately patterned Hunters normally sat in a howdah 50 Recall that value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color.

92 This small carriage perched atop the elephant s back Mahouts, elephant trainers, typically drove the animal The hunter holds his rifle upside down, perhaps due to the painter s unfamiliarity with guns He may also have intended to mock the Westerner s incompetence Three-Dimensional Art Indian textiles Indian textile production has a long history Degradation and the continent s monsoon climate have destroyed the earliest Indian textiles The Rig Veda and Upanishads describe the universe as a cloth woven by the gods Its warp and woof create the grid upon which all life has been painted Life therefore appears as both illusory and cyclical Second century BCE Buddhist cave paintings in Ajanta show dyed loincloths and other patterned clothing Such fabrics also appear in Mughal miniature paintings Fabrics from Gujarat were found near Al-Fustat, near Cairo in the nineteenth century These fifteenth century textiles use block printing and resists Their designs include geese, mythical creatures, lotus flowers, floral and geometric designs Cotton (Gossypium arboretum) is native to India Greeks and Romans described it as wool growing into trees Textile production dates from the Indus Valley Civilization Processed cotton cloth wrapped around a silver pot has been found in Mohenjo-daro The metallic salts of the pot preserved the fibers The city also contains terra-cotta spindles and a bronze needle Techniques transmitted through the patrilineal line in the caste hierarchy India s cotton production uses unique forms of embellishment in dying and decoration India alone produced dyed cotton until the seventeenth century The process requires thorough permeation of the fibers instead of simply applying pigmentation Cotton, unlike silk and wool, cannot easily absorb dye as it comes from vegetables Mordants, or catalysts, enabled proper dying

93 These metal oxides bind with natural plant or mineral dyes to create an insoluble coating of the fiber Different mordants create different shades of dye Different concentrations lead to different color densities Indian cotton has especially striking and durable color French naval officer Antoine Georges N.H. de Beaulieu recorded the dyeing process in 1734 He identified 11 steps in the Pondicherry production system He also took textile swathes throughout the process They included bleaching, painting with mordants, and then a dye bath The artisans repeated the dye-bleach cycle to create a six-color pattern Decoration included traditional Indian patterns as well as British and Dutch oriental designs Weaving and embroidery as well as print and paint created this embellishments Hand painting predates printing of cotton dyes This process of pen work used a split bamboo reed or pen to apply the mordant A wool and hair ball tied around the shaft held the mordant Squeezing the ball fed mordant onto the dye A sketch usually guided the freehand drawing Resists could also be painted on This molten wax or paste prevents other materials from soaking into the fibers The fabric will retain its underlying color if re-dyed Block printing used single stamps More recent techniques use engraved copper plates or roller and silkscreen printing They similarly used dyes, mordants, and resists A final glaze protected the fabric Textile trade with Europe Indian has traded cotton to the west since the existence of the Silk Road By the late seventeenth century, the majority of western Europe s textile imports came from India East India companies including the English and Dutch bought and sold Indian cotton India s textile trade from 1600 to 1800 formed the world s greatest textile trade Before such imports, Europe only used wool and linen fabric These fabrics usually had dull earthen colors Cotton introduced light, easily washed, and colorful fabrics They featured in a variety of objects, from bed furnishings to upholstery and wall decorations The European demand for cotton rivaled the impact of tobacco, potatoes, coffee, and tea Indian cotton became known as chintz in Europe Chintz comes from the word chitta, spotted Europe used chintz to line their own garments until the mid-seventeenth century From the eighteenth century, chintz became an independent commodity Its large market helped to spur and finance the Industrial Revolution Cotton textiles affected European agriculture and industry

94 They also impacted governance, fashion, and European ideas of hygiene 51 Cotton replaced European silk and wool British manufacturers pressed for restrictions on Indian cotton A 1721 law banned Indian patterned cloth in English clothing and home furnishings They soon developed more efficient manufacturing processes for cotton John Key s invention of the flying shuttle in 1733 sped up weaving Mechanized roller-printing and synthetic dyes also made cotton production cheaper and more efficient India eventually became a producer only of the raw material Lancashire mills manufactured finished clothes that they sold back to India India also exported textile terms to Europe Terms originating in India Chintz Calico Sash Shawl Pajama Gingham Dungaree Bandanna Khaki Indian cloth production is now mass produced However, some areas still practice traditional weaving and dyeing The early independence period saw a movement to support local textiles The 1950 All-India Handicrafts Board promotes traditional handicraft Its work maintains a vital aspect of Indian artistic heritage Robe This robe exemplifies the complexities of Indian cotton trade in the eighteenth century Its fabric was created entirely in India It uses an Indo-European pattern that blends European and Indian styles Dutch traders shipped the fabric to the Netherlands Dutch artisans wove the robe, known as a wentke Women in Hindeloopen, in the northern Netherlands, wear the wentke The robe contains Indian cotton in the main body and edgings Dutch trim of linen and wool lines the neckline, opening, and sleeves The robe is 52 3/8 inches long The pattern uses Indian floral motifs in red and blue However, their arrangement echoes European lacepatterned silk Its diaper pattern has ribbons and floral sprays intertwined It has been preserved in very good condition The robe still contains some of its glazed finishes Dutch artists used Indian chintz in wentke from the mid-eighteenth century 51 In other words, they improved it. Since cotton (unlike wool) could be washed easily, clean clothes suddenly became a possibility. Josephine

95 The light, open robes appeared on special occasions Other European chintz garments constituted casual wear Women would often wear wentke with other decorative Indian cotton clothing Chintz clothing became common enough that professionals specialized in cleaning such fabrics The Amsterdamsche Courant advertised for them in the mid-eighteenth century Their services ranged from reglazing cotton to touching up colors Indian cotton s presence in Europe sparked some debate A critic compared cotton clothes to ill weeds 52 English journalist-writer Daniel Defoe saw it as representing vice and luxury He criticized the discarding of clothes merely for being out of fashion rather than being worn down 53 European demand for Indian cotton helped to create ideas of fashion Christianity in India Christianity arrived and spread in India alongside the East India Company The Company initially banned missionaries from India Impose their religion on their trade counterparts was bad business Missionaries instead traveled to other parts of India Baptist minister William Carey landed in the Danish colony Serampore in saw the first licensed Christian missionaries in British India British ideas about their role in India also began to change Political theorist Edmund Burke introduced the idea of enlightened imperialism He felt that Britain had the duty to educate and modernize India These policies would prepare India for self-rule someday Christian missionaries expanded this idea to the sphere of religion Evangelicals proposed a spiritual responsibility towards India as well Many churches sprang up throughout India Most mimicked churches in the West Western churches used traditional forms borrowed from ancient Roman basilica Public basilica acted as law courts and meeting halls Features of basilica Large rectilinear form Pitched roof Central hall or nave Colonnades on longitudinal sides to break up the space Nave oriented towards the apse where court officials sat Basilica apses became the location of the chancel altar Earlier churches evoked the ideal Christian character Their somber, simple outside hid a beautiful, transcendent interior Decoration focused on the interior, where worship occurred Gothic churches evolved to include complex carvings, stained glass, and paintings One church in particular served as the model for many in India, Canada, Australia, and South Africa 52 Weeds is another word for clothes, so this is a pun on weed (plant ) and weed (clothing). Ha, ha. Josephine 53 Imagine what he d say about Forever 21.

96 St Martin-in-the-Fields was built by James Gibbs from 1722 to 1724 It uses the layout of a basilica It has a long nave with three bays and a chancel on the east end The architecture evokes classical forms The pediments, columns, and pilasters borrow from Greco-Roman styles However, its west entrance has a tall, somewhat incongruous tower Its height breaks up the classical balance of the church However, it stands out with its sheer scale St Martin s sits on the northeast corner of Trafalgar Square It ranked only behind St Paul s as London s grandest church The location evoked the heart of the British empire Indian churches after its model recognized the British example It also became influential due to James Gibb s Book of Architecture (1728) Gibbs reproduced the plan of the church The book showed a range of his designs and ornaments It formed a pattern book and inspiration for other architects Many British, American, and West Indies architects drew on the book Colonial engineers used the plan to build St. Andrew s Church in Chennai The Corps of Engineers helped to build the St. Andrew s Church They formed one of the first divisions of the Indian Army, dating from the late eighteenth century It served under the Company s original charter as an auxiliary for military and security The Corps carried out much of the colonial period s construction works Combat bridges, forts, and trenches Strategic destruction of bridges and minefield laying Building and maintenance Corps Construction Projects Water supply and drainage Electricity grids Roads Churches Military engineers and architects oversaw such projects Captain James Caldwell Major Thomas Fiott de Havilland Assistant to Caldwell Designed the plan for St. George s Cathedral, Chennai (completed 1816) Designed working plans and led construction of St. George s Cathedral and St. Andrew s Eldest son of Guernsey s Bailiff Sir Peter de Havilland Educated at Queen Elizabeth College, Guernsey Served in India 1792 to 1823

97 St. Andrew s Church India contains three churches dedicated to St. Andrew Portuguese Jesuits built the first in Mumbai in 1575 The Church of Scotland commissioned the other two in Calcutta and Chennai Both draw on St Martin s design St Andrew s in Chennai forms one of India s finest nineteenth century churches It remains a key Indian church Construction lasted from 1818 to 1821 De Havilland replicated the four-story tower of St Martin s It uses a variant of the original plan proposed in Gibbs book Gibbs proposed a domed, circular variation with a more centrally oriented plan St Andrew s Church Exterior Large, projecting portico resembling Greco-Roman temples Wide pediment, large Ionic columns Ionic pilasters wrap the exterior Shallow porches on east and west Short balustrade on roofline Narrowing spire with several levels of decoration White color evoking Greco-Roman marble Interior Spacious, well-lighted interior Black and white marble floor tiling Arched windows in side with stained glass and wooden louvered shutters Circular arrangement of woven cane pews Deep blue dome with painted gold stars Large supporting Corinthian columns St. Andrew s functioned as an important symbol of colonialism It exemplified the British civilizing mission in its ordered form and reference to Greco-Roman styles Rationality and Christianity provided India entrance to modernity

98 Post-colonial art in India displays a mix of returns to traditional art forms, as in Mithila painting, and the incorporation of modernist forms and styles as a commentary and engagement with India s post-colonial development whether in line with international styles, such as the PK Kelkar Library, or in critique, as with The Tables Have Turned. According to the USAD outline, 7-8 questions should come from the Section IV 5 questions (10%) come from the Section V on the USAD Art Practice Test Section V covers pgs of the USAD Art Resource Guide Overview Indian independence The Mutiny of 1857 broke out on 10 May Indian soldiers revolted against British colonial rule The rebellion became known as the First War of Indian Independence The revolt sparked political activity in favor of greater autonomy The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 It formed the first official means for Indians to participate in governance It led the independence struggle The Congress continues to dominate Indian politics The Congress s success came from its widespread support throughout India It did not achieve independence through a single revolution Instead, a broad, sustain effort united Indians across class and caste The nonviolent approach enabled India to transition to democracy Mahatma Gandhi ( ) represents India s independence struggle Gandhi has become known as the Father of the Indian Nation Mahatma means Great Soul in Sanskrit

99 His insistence on nonviolent civil disobedience earned him worldwide respect It also helped to shape an inclusive nationalist movement He suffered imprisonment and undertook hunger strikes multiple times during his nonviolent campaign October 2, 1869 Gandhi s life Born in Porbandar, Gujarat to a Hindu merchant family Father government official Mother devout, religious Hindu who raised her son to believe in nonviolence and vegetarianism 1882 Marries Kasturba Makhanji in traditional arranged match Five sons; four survive into adulthood Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas, and Devdas 1888 Moves to London to study law 1891 Returns to India; establishes unsuccessful law practice in Bombay 1893 Joins Indian law firm; is sent to South Africa s Natal colony Develops his philosophy of anti-injustice and discrimination coupled with satyagraha, devotion to the truth 1914 Returns to India; becomes a leader of the Congress Campaigns for the poor, women, and lower caste 1930 Leads the Salt March against the British salt tax, walking 240 miles from Ahmedabad to Dandi on the west coast to illegally produce salt from the sea Attempts to mediate between Hindus and Muslims following partition January 30, 1948 Killed by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, in New Delhi Gandhi shaped the 1947 Indian Independence Act It divided British India into India and Pakistan India remained under British protection until 1950 The Indian Constitution took effect on January 26, 1950 Jawaharlal Nehru ( ) became India s first Prime Minister He cooperated closely with Gandhi during the independence struggle He sought to modernize India and ensure its independence His term in office laid the foundation for Indian development Post-colonialism India constitutes a postcolonial nation It has had to grapple with modernity and the legacy of colonialism British rule brought political, economic, educational, and infrastructural reform However, it also oppressed Indian culture and people Postcolonial India has to find a new identity in light of its colonial past Postcolonial theory studies the issues colonial and postcolonial societies face It shows how former colonizers and colonies have been affected

100 Palestinian scholar Edward Said ( ) formed one of the field s pioneers Orientalism (1978) argued that Orientalism created a distinction between East and West The Occident, or West, possessed a superior civilization The Oriental East in contrast was exotic, mystical, and backward It served as an Other for the West 54 The concept s invention and use in Western thought helped justify colonialism 55 Orientalism helped Europeans to spread such ideas It formed the starting point of many treatises and theories about the Orient Indian academic Homi K. Bhabha (1949-) builds on Said s work He wrote The Location of Culture (1994) The book uses the concepts of mimicry and hybridity 56 to show how colonized societies can resist colonial power Other writers develop these issues vis-a-vis gender and sexuality 57 Some argue that postcolonial theory simplifies cultural contact into a binary relationship However, it remains core to understanding modern power and race dynamics Many artists engage with post-colonialism and questions of identity and history The art world has come to embrace many minorities since the 1970s It no longer centers solely in western cities such as Paris and new York British Nigerian Yinka Shonibare (1962-) is one such example He creates art engaged with colonial history and neo-colonialism Diasporic cultures have become more visible Migrants to other parts of the world are unable ever to feel fully at home They live far from their homeland and can never fully assimilate into their adopted country Do Ho Suh, a South Korean, addresses such themes in his work Postcolonial theory also addresses the question of art s audience 54 Enrichment Fact: Said in fact describes the east as a surrogate other - possibly suggesting that the other-ing of the East serves to displace Occidental anxieties about its own forms of internal oppression onto the more overt practices of the Orient. 55 Enrichment Fact: Said draws heavily on Foucault s work in his account of the Orient. The crucial point here is the intersection between the idea and the practice of Orientalism/colonialism - or as Foucault puts it, the role of a discourse that represents an interplay between power and knowledge. Orientalism is not merely an idea but also a form of exercising power through its very shaping of how Europeans approached the East. 56 Mimicry refers to the adoption and copying of colonial practices, but In subversive ways; hybridity means blending and finding a balance between eastern and western cultures. 57 Two good starting points for the subcontinent are Dipesh Chakrabarty and Gayatri Spivak. The concept of intersectionality comes from the work of Kimberle Crenshaw, another under-recognized scholar. I ll stop geeking out now. -Jac

101 Who appears in art? How does art portray these subjects? Whom does art address? How does art intersect with identity and power? The selections in this section tackle several such issues Issue Work Independence and Gandhi Banknotes Indian attitudes towards western culture Library for the Indian Institute of Technology Pre-colonial folk art A holy man in the forest Feminism, democracy, and progress The Tables Have Turned Three-Dimensional Art Numismatics Numismatics refers to the study of currency It includes any object used as a means of exchange, including early societies cowries or brass manilas Currency has both economic and also artistic meaning Archaeological excavations of coins provide much detail about ancient cultures Coins images reveal their political contexts They can also hint at religious practices Locations of currency hoards show where trade centers once existed Numismatics has its limitations Currency can serve as propaganda More recent currency provides less information compared to other sources Many museums hold collections of currency, classifying them as fine art We can see coins as tiny sculptures with aesthetic and historical value Modern currency now in circulation can be analyzed in this way as well 58 Indian Currency (1000 Rupees) with Image of Mahatma Gandhi Coins of gold, silver, and copper India s earliest currency Many came in rounded disks, but some had a square shape They generally appear thicker and heavier than western coins 58 Note the recent debate about choosing a woman to put on the $10 bill. Josephine

102 Sutras, law books, and religious texts from the period provide no political context Therefore, such coins are particularly useful for studying pre-muslim India Coins have also provided information about Akbar s rule Kushan 59 and Gupta coins demonstrate the evolving religions of India Colonial-era coins also help clarify history 60 Modern banknotes have complex features Watermarks, holographs, and security features of fluorescent and optical fibers all appear The 1000-rupee note forms part of the Mahatma Gandhi Series of banknotes The Reserve Bank of India introduced the series in 1996 with the 10 and 500 notes It now comprises all Indian notes They come in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 The series contains a portrait of Gandhi on the right of the bills front (obverse) side They have different colors A central portion shows the bill s value The left side contains another portrait of Gandhi and the value This part can only be seen under light It acts as a security feature Various backgrounds on the note series Varied colored schemes Indian banknotes Agriculture: farmer and tractor Animals: rhinoceros, tiger, and elephant heads Landscapes: Mount Harrier, Port Blair, Himalayan mountains Parliament of India building Dandi Salt March Green Orange/violet Red/orange Violet Blue/green and brown/purple Orange and yellow Amber/red Other details Decorated borders Reserve Bank of India s seal Emblem of the Ashoka Pillar with lion capital Fine intaglio engraving 59 Recall the early coin showing an engraving of the Buddha as a demonstration of the king s faith. 60 The USAD guide does not provide much information on this point, but appears to have a good overview for the curious.

103 Features of the 1000 rupee note Reverse side: images of India s economy Oil drilling platform Factory Satellite Industrialized agriculture Female worker at a computer Red and amber color 6 ¾ by 2 4/5 inches Varied color and decoration The picture of Gandhi comes from a photograph taken on April 18, 1946 He appears with Lord Pethick-Lawrence, the British Secretary of State with India They had just finished an interview in Delhi Pethick-Lawrence stands to the left of Gandhi in the photograph Both figures look to the right However, the bill shows Gandhi looking to the left The image became reversed when carved onto the engraving plate Gandhi s portrait on the bill exemplifies his public image He appears balding and elderly with signature round, wire-rimmed spectacles His white dhoti, a toga-like cloth, drapes around his neck The bill shows his face in vivid detail Hatching creates a three-dimension, high-value effect It portrays Gandhi as the benevolent, enlightened Father of the Nation The bill serves several purposes shows the beauty of functional printmaking represents pride in India s independent banking system honors India s postcolonial development serves as a daily reminder of India s achievements Modern Indian architecture India has a long indigenous architectural history Postcolonial architects drew on these influences They sought to blend tradition and celebration of the future A split emerged between the Revivalists and Modernists Modernism s universal message has won out The professionalization of architecture enabled this shift Architecture schools and firms emerged after independence Most had a Modernist orientation Other students studied in Europe and United States and drew influence from the Bauhaus avant-garde

104 Louis Kahn ( ) and Le Corbusier ( ) also built influential projects in India Kahn designed the campus for the Indian Institute of Management at Ahmedabad in 1962 Le Corbusier s projects included the plan for Chandigarh, capital of Punjab and Haryana Le Corbusier s work in particular became the model for modern Indian architecture The International Style echoed Nehru s emphasis on development and invention Indian Modernists often used Brutalist forms Brutalism values honesty 61 Buildings should show their form through the use of basic materials, especially concrete They lack polished finishes and sophisticated forms Such buildings emphasize the future rather than past Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IITK) The Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was one of five such institutes of technology founded in 1959 They supported Indian education, research, technology and industry IITs formed part of Nehru s modernization drive The IITK has the slogan of Lead Me from Darkness to Light P.K. Kelkar formed the IITK s first director Its initial class of 100 students used the space of the Harcourt Butler Technological Institute The Uttar Pradesh government gave 1000 acres to the IITK in 1960 The IITK moved to the site in 1963 He initiated the Kanpur Indo-American Program ( ) It formed a consortium with American universities that helped IITK establish its curriculum and research Participants in the Kanpur Indo-American Program California Institute of Technology Carnegie Institute of Technology Case Institute of Technology MIT Ohio State University Princeton Purdue University of California at Berkeley University of Michigan The residential campus now has almost 4,000 undergraduate and 2,500 graduate students It also sponsors continuing education and research efforts It has earned particular acclaim in engineering and science 61 Sometimes this is just another word for ugliness. Josephine

105 Achyut Kanvinde planned the IITK s campus and library Timeline of Achyut Kanvinde s life 1916 Born in Achare, Maharashtra 1942 Graduates from Sir J.J. School of Arts in Mumbai Sent by government to study at Harvard Earns master s degree under Walter Gropius 1947 Founds Kanvinde, Rai, and Chowdhury in New Delhi Post-1947 Becomes Chief Architect for the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; oversees major projects such as IITK, National Science Center (Delhi), and National Council of Applied Economic Research (New Delhi) 1976 Wins the Padma Shree, India s 4 th highest civilian award 1985 Wins the Indian Institute of Architects Babu Rao Mhatre Gold Medal for lifetime achievements December 28, 2002 Dies in Delhi Walter Gropius influenced his International Style approach to architecture Kanvinde became one of India s first generation of modernist architects The library is one of the IITK s major buildings It was renamed the PK Kelkar Library from Central Library in 2003 It has about three million books and subscribes to over 1000 periodicals The library is one of India s foremost science and technology institutes It adds more than 4,500 books and journals yearly The library has three stories and an area of 75,000 square feet It is the most significant of Kanvinde s early projects He used Louis-Kahn inspired Brutalist forms

106 Kanvinde borrowed especially from Kahn s 1953 Yale University Art Gallery It has a concrete skeleton and brick facing Main verticals on the building s height orient it upwards Horizontal beams do not detract from them They stand between the columns to create a three-dimensional grid The lowest floor has a taller height than the equal-height second and third stories It also has been set back from the façade The upper stories serve as a roof to a groundlevel portico The second floor has less shade The exterior walls stand closer to the vertical grid Brick walls on the third floor are offset against the grid pattern This effect creates a series of square forms The building emphasizes geometry in its grid and square forms It has clean, stark lines without any Indiaspecific details With its international look, it could potentially belong to any developed country This universality symbolizes India s technological and economic development Two-Dimensional Art Contemporary Indian folk art The All-India Handicrafts Board now advises other government bodies that protect India s craft traditions These agencies include the Office of the Development Commissioner (Handicrafts) and the Ministry of Textiles They also help artisans market their creations, improve their work, and earn more Mithila painting comes from its eponymous region in Bihar, northeastern India The style apparently came from Raja Janak He commissioned palace murals for his daughter s marriage His daughter, Sita, married Lord Ram of the Ramayana Such murals originally served as domestic decorations

107 Women painted Hindu deities on mud walls using natural pigments They painted in their homes and courtyards with fingers, twigs, and brushes The murals commemorated special occasions such as births, weddings, and festivals The practice became well-known after the 1934 Bihar earthquake A colonial officer, William G. Archer, came to tour the area He served in the Madhubani District He photographed the murals on his tour The region suffered a drought from 1966 to 1968 Pupul Jayakar organized Mithila women to produce their murals on paper She served as Director of the All-India Handicrafts Board Mithila woman sold artworks to help support Bihar The effort popularized the art form Indira Gandhi, then-prime Minister of India, also asked a Mithila artist to decorate her home Mithila paintings use strong, clear lines with flat color areas and dotted decorations They generally depict Hindu myths and local folktales Men have begun to take part in the practice as well Painting serves as a meditation or devotion to bring artists nearer to their deities A Holy Man in the Forest (Shiva as Lord of the Animals), Jogmaya Devi, 1981 This painting shows Shiva as Pashupati, Lord of the Animals It forms another one of his avatars Shiva s three major manifestations are Lord of Dance, Victor of the Three Cities, and the Moon-Crowned Lord Hindu art has long shown Shiva surrounded by animals Indus Valley sites have seals that depict such Shiva-like figures The Mohenjo-daro Pashupati Seal shows a man with a horned headdress surrounded by animals Historians have not resolved the question of whether such seals represent a proto-shiva The work measures 30 by 22.5 inches and uses ink and color on paper It has markedly vibrant line and color and dense detailing The central figure of the composition might be an ascetic or Shiva himself The animals surroundings suggests that he represents Shiva The figure also has characteristic dreadlocks that resemble a large headdress Shiva sits meditating cross-legged on a decorated cushion His hands hold prayer beads, the left on his chest and the right held out to the side A horizontal decoration on his forehead marks him as a Shiva devotee The fitted clothing includes red leggings striped with blue and a blue tunic with red panels at the neck and arms Bands with decorative stripes appear on the hips, neckline, forearm, and biceps

108 Various animals surround Shiva Upper left Lower left Upper right Uppermost right corner Lower right Animals in A Holy Man in the Forest Lion Wide, toothy grin, nose turned upward Patterned claws, coat, and polka-dotted mane resembling a halo Horned animal deer or antelope Spotted coat resembling a field of small eyes Animal with a lion s body and lizard s head Birdlike figure Person riding an elephant Smaller animal with antlers Colorful decorations and flourishes fill the rest of the image, demonstrating horror vacui The images contains hatching, dotting, strong outlines, and bright color fields It blends Mithila s characteristic ornateness and light-hearted tone Feminism in India Early Indian feminism had associations with Britain s civilizing mission 62 The colonial powers sought to ban child marriage, polygyny 63, and sati Sati involved widows burning themselves on their husband s funeral pyre The British also espoused female education Rammohun Roy ( ) was the first Indian advocate for women s rights His arguments found support in James Mill s History of British India (1826) The book argued that women s status correlated to social progress Mill critiqued the position of women in India The nineteenth century saw much improvement in women s lot Indian women increasingly received education and entered the workforce Women s organizations Women s arms of Indian National Congress and National Social Congress 1910 Bharat Stree Mahamandal (Large Circle of Indian Women) Founded by Saraladevi Chaudhurani Women s Indian Association National Council of Women in India All-India Women s Conference They participated in the Nationalist movement Gandhi also appealed to them by comparing India to Sita in the story of Ramayana 62 Despite the fact that women in nineteenth-century Britain couldn t own property, vote, or attend higher education, and that they had no protection against marital abuse or rape, colonialists patted themselves strenuously on the back for the way that women were treated in Britain. Josephine 63 Taking multiple wives.

109 A 1974 report by the Indian government, Toward Equality, found that such progress had slowed Recent developments had harmed women Violence against women today threatens their sociopolitical and economic freedom Installation art Installation art emerged in the late twentieth century Key events in installation art 1950s Allan Kaprow s Happening events 1961 Claes Oldenburg creates The Store, a display of plaster sculptures in a Lower East Side storefront incorporating the entire display into its exhibit 1965 James Rosenquist s anti-war F-111 at Leo Castelli Gallery occupies all four walls of the gallery Its 86 feet long and 10 feet high scale envelops the viewer It subverts conventional use of art spaces and challenges audiences to receive art through more than one medium It uses sound, light, and space to explore time and movement The art s ephemeral existence often depends on its surroundings Collecting and displaying such art becomes harder Most such art appears in contemporary museums that do not collect the pieces permanently, or alternative forms Global art fairs and biennial events are popular sites for installation art Nalini Manini is one of the most prominent Indian artists today She uses multiple media, from painting, photography, film, drawing, printmaking, shadow plays, and artist books to newer installation, performance, and video art 1946 Born in Karachi Nalini Manini s life 1969 Earns Diploma in Fine Arts from Sir J.J. School of Arts, Bombay Studies in Paris on the French Government Scholarship for Fine Arts 2010 Receives Honorary Doctorate in Fine Arts from San Francisco Art Institute 2013 Receives Fukuoka Prize for Art and Culture 2014 Holds her first career retrospective in India, You Can t Keep Acid in a Paper Bag, at the Kiran Nadar Museum of Art Marani now lives in Bombay and Amsterdam She participates in multiple biennials Several museums hold her work, including New York s Asia Society Museum and Amsterdam s Stedelijk Museum Her art discusses political issues such as democracy in India and the India-Pakistan conflict She also invokes feminist perspectives by depicting mythological women She also addresses modern violence and discrimination against women The Tables Have Turned Malani created this installation for the 2008 sixteenth Biennale of Sydney

110 The exhibition had the theme of Revolutions- Forms that Turn It stood in a concrete, 23-feet diameter bunker on Cockatoo Island, Sydney Harbor The artwork examines women s status in India They resemble Cassandra in their lack of voice and empowerment Malani tries to provide mythological women with agency and their own narratives Female protagonists in Malani s work Radha Consort to the flirtatious blue god Krishna Sita Character in the Ramayana Medea Ancient Greek sorceress Alice Protagonist of Alice in Wonderland The work examines Cassandra in Greek mythology Cassandra was the daughter of King Priam of Troy Apollo gave her the gift of prophetic power However, Cassandra refused to reciprocate his wooing Apollo cursed her to have her prophesies never come true Christa Wolf updated the myth in her 1984 work Cassandra: A Novel and Four Essays It retells Priam s refusal to listen to her warnings about Greece s destruction of Troy Malani positions it as a warning of the dangers of not listening to one s instincts Such unheeding action cause the tables to turn and lead to catastrophe The work consists of 32 transparent Mylar cylinders Each stands on its own turntable rotating four times per minute The cylinders are about 39 by 11 inches Malani used reverse painting with acrylic and ink to depict a variety of images such as skulls, fleeing dogs, and female bodies Directional lighting created shadows as they spun Alaknanda Samarth narrated a 20-minute soundtrack of excerpts from Christa Wolf s book The installation created a sense of spookiness and chaos

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116 PEOPLE INDIAN HISTORY Achyut Kanvinde (115) Indian architect; designed the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Ajit Ghose (96) Indian art curator and critic; described Kalighat painting as a bold form comparable to Chinese calligraphy Ajoy Choudhury (116) Indian architect mentored by Achyut Kanvinde Akbar (72) r ; succeeded Humayun; extended Mughal territory in north India; presided over dynasty s wealth and artistic flourishing Al-Walid ibn Abd al-malik (84) Umayyad Caliph; ordered the Mosque of the Prophet s construction over Muhammad s tomb Alaknanda Samarth (120) Narrator of the soundtrack to Nalini Malani s The Tables Have Turned Albert Foucher (59) Buddhist scholar; led the Great Stupa restoration project Alexander the Great (87) Macedonian invader who arrived in India in 326 BCE Allan Kaprow (119) Pioneer of installation art; staged Happenings in the 1950s Anne D Alleva (107) Art historian; describes postcolonial theory as the study of the distinctive cultural, social, and political dynamics of both colonial and postcolonial societies Antoine Georges N. H de Beaulieu (99) Arjumand Banu Begam (82) French naval officer who recorded the Indian dyeing process in 1734, noting 11 distinct steps in the Pondicherry workshop Original name of Mumtaz Mahal Arthur Robertson (93) Photographer; founder of Shepherd & Robertson in 1862 Asad Beg (79) Nobleman who brought Akbar tobacco and smoking paraphernalia and recorded the emperor s reaction to the substance Aurangzeb (72) Successor of Shahjahan; caused the Mughal empire s deterioration and subsequent fragmentation after his death Babur (71) First Mughal ruler (r ); invaded north India Bennett Pithavadian (116) Noted Indian architect influenced by Bauhaus principles Charles Correa (116) Noted Indian architect influenced by Bauhaus principles Charles Shepherd (92) Photographer; founder of Shepherd & Robertson in 1862 Christa Wolf (120) Author of Cassandra: A Novel and Four Essays, which Nalini Malani s The Tables Have Turned excerpted Christopher Columbus (87) European explorer who landed in North America in 1492 Claes Oldenburg (119) Pioneer of installation art; staged The Store in 1961

117 Colin MacKenzie (93) Illustrator commissioned by the East India Company to survey south India in 1783 Daniel Defoe (101) English writer; criticized the popularity of cotton in European fashion Devdas Gandhi (110) One of Mahatma and Kasturba Gandhi s four surviving sons Do Ho Suh (109) 1962-; Korean diasporic artist who creates art centered on the idea of migration and diaspora Edmund Burke (101) nineteenth-century political theorist; proposed enlightened imperialism Edward Said (107) Palestinian scholar; ; described Orientalism as instituting a division between the inferior Orient and the civilized Occident Emperor Ashoka (47) Indian ruler (r BCE) who converted to Buddhism and proselytized throughout his kingdom, commissioning many symbolic pillars and distributing the Buddha s ashes Empress of India (88) Title assumed by Queen Victoria in 1876 Francis Douce (75) ; English antiquarian and British Museum s Keeper of Manuscripts; donated the Patna s Drawings album to the Bodleian General Taylor (59) First Westerner to describe the Great Stupa; leader of Bengal Cavalry Genghis Khan (71) ; forefather of the Mughal dynasty; Mongolian conqueror Governor (89) One of the highest British positions in India; crown s representative Governor-General (89) One of the highest British positions in India; crown s Governor-General Lord William Bentinck (88) representative Indian Governor-General; served ; introduced an English-language education policy in 1813 Harilal Gandhi (110) One of Mahatma and Kasturba Gandhi s four surviving sons Harloe Alfred Tayloe O Callaghan (89) Hasmukh Chandubhai Patel (116) Helen Frances Mary Bulteel (89) Henrietta Elizabeth Anne Cairns (89) Son of Henry and Henrietta Irwin Noted Indian architect influenced by Bauhaus principles Twin daughter of Henry and Henrietta Irwin Twin daughter of Henry and Henrietta Irwin Henrietta Helen Irwin (89) Wife of Henry Irwin; married in 1871 and bore four children in India

118 Henry Irwin (89) British architect who worked extensively in Ceylon and India; built the Viceregal Lodge in Shimla; also his father, an Irish archdeacon Henry Robert John Bloomfield (89) Son of Henry and Henrietta Irwin Homi K. Bhabha (108) 1949-; Indian scholar; author of The Location of Culture, describing colonized resistance against imperialism via mimicry and hybridity Humayun (72) Son of Babur; reigned but exiled ; brought Persian painters to Delhi Indira Gandhi (117) Prime Minister of India and ; invited Mithila artist to paint her home J. Talboys Wheeler (95) Organizer of Lord Lytton s 1877 durbar; author of The History of the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi Jahangir (72) r ; Mughal successor of Akbar formerly known as Prince Salim; relied mainly on Prince Khurrum and Nur Jahan James Caldwell (102, 104) Corps of Engineers Captain; designed Chennai s St George s Cathedral James Gibbs (102) Architect of the St Martin-in-the-fields church in London and author of the 1728 Book of Architecture James Mill (118) Author of the 1826 History of British India James Rosenquist (119) Pioneered installation art with F-111 (1965, Leo Castelli Gallery) Jami (75) Famous Persian poet who authored Tuhfat al-ahrar, The Gift to the Noble, quoted in Patna s Drawings Jawaharlal Nehru (107) ; first Prime Minister of India; leader of Indian independence movement Jogmaya Devi (118) Artist of A holy man in the forest John Key (100) Inventor of the flying shuttle in 1733, mechanizing cloth John Lockwood Kipling (95) weaving Art teacher, curator, and collector of Kalighat paintings which he donated to the London Victoria and Albert Museum Jyotindra Jain (96) Indian art historian; noted shift in subject matter in Kalighat painting Kalidasa (66) Sanskrit poet; authored the Kumarasambhava and other epics Kanishka Emperor of the Kushan Dynasty who minted a gold coin with an image of the Buddha Kasturba Makhanji (110) Wife of Mahatma Gandhi whom he married at the age of 13 Khurram (72) Son of Jahangir; took power after Jahangir s death as Shahjahan

119 King Udayana (56) Legendary commissioner of the Udayana Buddha Le Corbusier (114) ; modernist architect; designed master plan of Chandigarh Lieutenant-Governor (89) One of the highest British positions in India; crown s representative Linnaeus Tripe (94) British photographer; created portraits of the maharajas Lord Curzon (95) Indian Viceroy; held durbar in Delhi in 1903 which has been photographed and collected in the Royal Photographic Album Lord Dufferin (90) Indian viceroy ; commissioned Viceregal Lodge in Shimla Lord Lytton (90) Predecessor of Lord Dufferin in India; resided at Peterhof; 1877 durbar collected in the Royal Photographic Album Lord Pethick-Lawrence (113) British Secretary of State for India; photographed in Delhi in 1946 with Gandhi in the portrait used on India s banknotes Louis Kahn (114) ; modernist architect; designed the campus of Indian Institute of Management at Ahmedabad Mahatma Gandhi (107) ; leader of the Indian independence movement from 1915; espoused nonviolent civil disobedience Mahmud of Ghazni (69) CE; tried to bring Muslim rule to India in several attacks from 1001 to 1026 Malik Dinar (69) d. 748 CE; one of Muhammad s earliest followers and Islamic missionary in India Manilal Gandhi (110) One of Mahatma and Kasturba Gandhi s four surviving sons Mary Tolley (94) Wife of Samuel Bourne Melanpattur Narayanan Bhattatiri (63) ; Bhakti practitioner and author of texts influencing mural paintings Mir Abdul Karim (85) Architect who served under Jahangir and may have built the Taj Mahal Mīr Alī-alkatib (75) Author of the calligraphy in Patna s Drawings Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (110) Birth name of Mahatma Gandhi Morad Chowdhury (116) Indian architect mentored by Achyut Kanvinde Mu izz al-din Muhammad (70) ; conquered Delhi in 1193, marking the start of Muslim rule in India; saw the Qutb complex built during this period Muhammad (84) Founder of Islam; buried under a room in his house Muhammad of Ghor (70) See Mu izz al-din Muhammad Mulla Murshid Shirazi (85) Possible architect of Taj Mahal; worked on later Delhi palaces

120 Mumtaz Mahal (82) Wife of Shahjahan; Chosen One of the Palace to whom the Taj Mahal is dedicated and in which her tomb lies Nadir Shah (74) Persian ruler; sacked New Delhi in 1739, removing many royal albums Nadira Banu Begum (74) Wife of Prince Dara-Shikoh for whom Patna s Drawings album was commissioned; received the text in 1642 Nalini Malani ( ) Creator of The Tables Have Turned; explores feminist, postcolonial, and historical themes in her multimedia work Nathuram Godse (112) Extremist Hindu who assassinated Gandhi in 1948 Nur Jahan (72) Persian widow and wife of Jahangir; became influential in the court and fought Khurram unsuccessfully for control after Jahangir s death P.K. Kelkar (115) First director of the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur; launched the Kanpur Indo-American Program in 1962 Philip Davies (103) Architectural historian; described St Martin-in-the-fields as making up in sheer impact and presence for what it lacked in good manners Prince Dara-Shikoh (74) Mughal noble; commissioned the Patna s Drawing album in 1633 Pupul Jayakar (117) Director of the All-India Handicrafts Board; helped to popularize Mithila painting during the Bihar drought Putanam Nambudiri (63) ; Bhakti practitioner and author; influenced mural paintings Quandari Begam (82) Persian princess and first wife of Shahjahan Queen Victoria (88) English queen; took over Indian rule from East India Company Raja Ramachandra Tondiman (94) Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay (52) Indian maharaja photographed by Linnaeus Tripe at a palace durbar Indian historian and employee of the Archeological Survey of India; discoverer of Mohenjo-daro Ram Singh (92) Jaipur prince (r ) photographed by Bourne & Shepherd Ramdas Gandhi (110) One of Mahatma and Kasturba Gandhi s four surviving sons Rammohun Roy (118) ; Indian reformer of traditions surrounding women Ranjit Sabikhi (116) Indian architect mentored by Achyut Kanvinde Rembrandt van Rijn (74) Dutch painter who collected and imitated Mughal miniature paintings Robert Lehman (78) d. 1969; donor of the Indo-Persian Carpet with Medallions to the Metropolitan Museum

121 Sahid Sardar (98) Historian; describes textiles as symbolic of the Indian worldview Samuel Bourne (92) Photographer; ; founded Howard & Bourne in Shimla in 1863; became one of British India s most famous photographers Saraladevi Chaudhurani (119) Founder of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal Shah Tahmash (72) Safavid Persian ruler; hosted Sher Shah Sur in exile; lost many of his artists to the Mughal court Shahjahan (72) r ; successor of Jahangir; presided over the height of the Mughal Empire; commissioned Patna s Drawings Sher Shah Sur (72) Usurping ruler of the Mughal dynasty c to 1555; developed its economic and political infrastructure, currency and tax systems Siddhartha Gautama (46) Birth name of the Buddha; born BCE or up to a 100 years later; first name means he who achieves his aim ; clan surname Sir John Marshall (59) Director-General of the Archeological Survey of India; led the Great Stupa restoration project Sir Joshua Reynolds (74) European artist; collected and imitated Mughal miniature paintings Sir Peter de Havilland (104) Bailiff in Guernsey; father of Major Thomas Fiott de Havilland St Jerome (99) 4 th century translator of the Bible; compares wisdom s longevity to that of Indian dye Stephen Wheeler (95) Collector of the Royal Photographic Album Sultan Ibrahim (71) Afghan king whose territory Babur conquered in 1526 T. Richard Blurton (45) South and South East Asia curator at the British Museum who argues against categorizing Indian art according to its religious roots T.B. Macaulay (88) British politician; derided Indian and Arabian culture and literature Thomas Daniells (93) Author of Oriental Scenery and A Picturesque Voyage to India, Thomas Fiott de Havilland (102, 104) by Way of China Major in the Corps of Engineers; assistant to Captain James Caldwell; designed and constructed St. Andrew s and St. George s in Chennai Timur (71) ; also known as Timur the Lame and Tamerlane; founder of the Timurid Dynasty in Central Asia that inspired the Mughal dynasty Ustad Amad (85) Mathematician and architect; possible architect of Taj Mahal Valmiki (65) Hindu sage thought to have authored the Ramayana

122 Vanu Bhuta (116) Noted Indian architect influenced by Bauhaus principles Vasco da Gama (87) First modern European trader in India; landed in Calicut at the end of the 14 th century Viceroy (90) High-ranking British administrative position in colonial India W.G. Archer (97) Art critic; describes the Englishman on Tiger Hunt print in its Victoria and Albert Museum exhibition Walter Gropius (115) Modernist architect; instructed Achyut Kanvinde William Carey (101) Baptist missionary who arrived in Danish Serampore in 1800 William Daniells (93) Nephew of Thomas Daniells; author of Oriental Scenery and A Picturesque Voyage to India, by Way of China William G. Archer (117) British officer in the Madhubani district who publicized the existence of Mithila painting after the 1934 Bihar earthquake William Howard (93) Photographer; founded Howard & Bourne in Shimla in 1863 William Morris (74) European artist; collected and imitated Mughal miniature paintings Yinka Shonibare (109) 1962-; British Nigerian artist; creates art about colonialism s Zahir ud-din Mohammed (71) impact ; founder of Mughal dynasty; known as Babur, The Tiger PEOPLE GLOBAL ART HISTORY

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126 LEGENDARY FIGURES Apollo (120) Greek god; gave Cassandra the gift of prophecy but cursed her to be never believed after she refused his advances Bhairava (60) Avatar of Shiva Bharata (65) Son of King Dasharatha and Kaikeyi in the Ramayana Bhava (60) Avatar of Shiva Bhole Nath (60) Avatar of Shiva Bodhisattva (57) Perfect beings who have not yet attained complete enlightenment Brahma (50) Major god of Hinduism, part of the Trimurti; acts as the creator

127 Brahma Sahampati (54) God who visited Buddha under the Bodhi tree and told him to educate others in the dharma Buddha (46) Founder of Buddhism; attained spiritual enlightenment and thereafter devoted his life to teaching others how to attain nirvana Cassandra (120) Daughter of King Priam of Troy; awarded the gift of prophecy by Apollo; central figure in Nalini Malani s The Tables Have Turned Chandrashekhara (61) Avatar of Shiva; moon-crowned lord Christ (21) Christian religious figure depicted in the Isenheim Altarpiece Discontent (54) Daughter of Mara who attacked Buddha Durga (66) Indian deity; appears on murals in the Kochi Rajah s Palace Ganesha (60) Child of Shiva in one of his avatars Hanuman (65) Monkey king Sugriva s greatest warrior in the Ramayana; joins Rama and shows him the way to Ravana s palace Isaac (16) Figure on Lorenzo Ghiberti s first relief for Florence baptistery doors Kaikeyi (65) Wife of Dasharatha who has Rama exiled in order in the Ramayana Kartikeya (60) Child of Shiva in one of his avatars Khara (65) Brother of Ravana and Surpanakha in the Ramayana; killed by Rama King Dasharatha (65) King of Ayodhya; father of Rama in the Ramayana King Priam (120) Mythological king of Troy; father of Cassandra who ignored her predictions of his city s destruction Lakshmana (65) Son of King Dasharatha in the Ramayana; joins Rama in his quest Lust (54) Daughter of Mara who attacked Buddha Mahadeva (60) Avatar of Shiva Mahayogi (60) Avatar of Shiva Mara (54) Demon of desire who attacked Buddha Minotaur (11) Legendary man-bull creature in the labyrinthine palace of Knossos Muhammad (31) c ; this prophet founded Islam in the Arabian peninsula Mushalagan (61) Dwarflike demon of ignorance on which Shiva is often shown Rudra (50) Name of Shiva in the Vedas Avatar (60) Manifestation of Hindu gods

128 Lord of Dance (60) Nataraja; avatar of Shiva Victor of the Three Cities (60) Avatar of Shiva known as Tipuravijaya Moon-Crowned Lord (60) Avatar of Shiva known as Chandrashekhara Nandi (61) Shiva s white bull steed Nataraja (60) Avatar of Shiva; god of dance Paramashiva (60) Infinite aspect of Shiva that cannot be seen or worshipped Parvati (60) Wife of Shiva in one of his avatars Pashupati (118) Lord of the Animals; one manifestation of Shiva Pazhayannur Bhagavati (66) Patron goddess of the Kochi royal family; temple dedicated to her stands in the Rajah s Palace Queen Maya (53) Mother of Siddhartha Gautama Raja Janak (117) Bihar ruler; legendarily originated the Mithila painting form by commissioned such murals for his daughter Sita s marriage Rama (64) Protagonist of the Ramayana; now thought of as an avatar of Vishnu Ravana (65) Demon king of Lanka who kidnaps Ravana in the Ramayana Shamash (11) Sun god depicted in relief on the Code of Hammurabi stele Shatrughna (65) Son of King Dasharatha in the Ramayana Shiva (50) Major god of Hinduism, part of the Trimurti; acts as the destroyer; known as Rudra in the Vedas Sita (65) Wife of Rama, kidnapped by Ravana in the Ramayana Somaskanda (61) Avatar of Shiva married to Parvati Sugriva (65) Monkey king in the Ramayana who agrees to help Rama rescue Sita Surpanakha (65) Sister of Ravana in the Ramayana; attacks Sita after failing to seduce Rama and Lakshmana and loses her ears and nose in the ensuing fight Thirst (54) Daughter of Mara who attacked Buddha Tipuravijaya (61) Avatar of Shiva; victor of three cities Trimurti (50) Trio of Hindu deities forming the main gods of Hinduism Vali (65) Brother and enemy of Sugriva Virgin Mary (18) Christian figure depicted in Raphael s Sistine Madonna Vishnu (50) Hindu god, part of the Trimurti as preserver; has Rama as avatar Vishwanath (60) Avatar of Shiva CULTURES, CIVILIZATIONS, AND EMPIRES

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130 GROUPS All-India Handicrafts Board (101) All-India Women s Conference (119) Amsterdamsche Courant (101) Organization established in 1950 to support and protect traditional India handicraft Early feminist organization founded in India between 1917 and 1927 Dutch newspaper that printed advertisements in the mideighteenth century for chintz garment maintenance services Arabs (69) Middle Eastern people who historically traded on the western coast of India, bringing spices and other luxury goods to Europe and introducing Islam to India Aryans (49) Nomadic Central Asian people that invaded the Indus Valley around 1500 BCE and brought Sanskrit and the Vedas Bengal Photographic Society (93) Bharat Stree Mahamandal (119) Indian society; awarded Samuel Bourne two gold medals at its 1865 exhibition Early Indian feminist organization whose name means Large Circle of Indian Women; established 1910 Bourne & Shepherd (93) Early commercial photography firm in India founded in 1862 by Arthur Robertson and Charles Shepherd Brahmins (49) Highest caste of India; preserver of Hindu traditions British Museum (45) London museum; employer of T. Richard Blurton Burke (93) Early commercial photography firm in India Catholic Church (18, 44) Critiqued for its decadence and corruption during the Protestant Reformation; commenced a Counter Reformation; led by Vatican pope

131 Chamber of Princes (92) 1921 formation of a governing body for the maharajas to represent their interests to the British government Christianity (14, 32, 42) Subject of Byzantine mosaics; Jerusalem as sacred city; Corps of Engineers of the Indian Army (103) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (115) Dutch East India Company (99) shaped medieval art Section of the East India Company formed to support its military; came to undertake a range of construction and infrastructural projects, including public works and churches such as St. Andrew s at Chennai Indian organization that appointed Achyut Kanvinde as Chief Architect Dutch trading company chartered in 1602 that traded in Indian cloth East India Company (88) Company chartered in 1600 to establish trade in India, eventually acquiring a governance role Ghazni (69) 11 th century dynasty whose ruler Mahmud attempted to establish Islamic rule in India Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading in the East Indies (88) Full name of the East India Company Hindu (49) Practitioners of the religion of Hinduism; originally a Persian term for people living beyond the Indus River House of Bourbon (72) French dynasty whose wealth and patronage of art mirrors that of the Mughal period Howard & Bourne (93) Predecessor of Bourne & Shepherd Howard, Bourne & Shepherd (93) Indian Institute of Architects (116) Indian National Congress (107) Predecessor of Bourne & Shepherd Organization that awarded Aryut Kanvinde with the Babu Rao Mahtre Gold Medal in 1985 Leading independence and nationalist Indian organization formed in 1885; led India after independence as a political party Johnston & Hoffman (93) Early commercial photography firm in India Kanvinde, Rai, and Chowdhury (115) Architecture firm set up by Achyut Kanvinde in New Delhi in 1947 Ministry of Education (91) Current administrator of the Viceregal Lodge in Shimla Ministry of Textiles (116) Indian agency that protects and develops traditional Indian handicrafts, advised by the All-India Handicrafts Board

132 Mughals (71) Muslim dynastic line that ruled India from the sixteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries; descended from Central Asian Mongols Naqshbandi (75) Order of Sufism to which the Persian poet Jami belonged National Council of Women in India (119) National Social Congress (119) Office of the Development Commissioner (Handicrafts) (116) Early feminist organization founded in India between 1917 and 1927 National Indian organization; primarily male-dominated with a women s auxiliary wing Indian agency that protects and develops traditional Indian handicrafts, advised by the All-India Handicrafts Board Ottomans (71) sixteenth to 20 th century Turkish dynasty contemporaneous with the Mughals in India Protestantism (18) Result of the anti-catholic Reformation in the sixteenth Public Works Department (89) Reserve Bank of India (113) century Company for which Henry Irwin worked in Ceylon and India Currency issuer of India; prints the Mahatma Gandhi Series of banknotes Renunciate (46) People such as Siddhartha Gautama who renounced the worldly life Sache (93) Early commercial photography firm in India Safavids (71) sixteenth to mid-nineteenth century Persian dynasty contemporaneous with the Mughals in India San Francisco Art Institute (120) Sangha (59) Buddhist monastic order Shepherd & Robertson (93) Awarder of a Honorary Doctorate in Fine Arts to Nalini Malani in 2010 Predecessor of Bourne & Shepherd Sufism (75) Sect of Islam emphasizing mystical devotion T.A. Rust (93) Early commercial photography firm in India Timurid Dynasty (71) Central Asian dynasty established by Timur with Turko- Mongol tribes; inspired the Mughal dynasty Women s Indian Association (119) Early feminist organization founded in India between 1917 and 1927 EVENTS 16 th Biennale of Sydney (120) 2008 event for which Nalini Malani created The Tables Have Turned

133 Age of Discovery (87) Period of European maritime exploration starting in the late fifteenth century, leading to the rise of global trade and colonialism Battle of Plassey (87) 1757 clash between French and British armies in India that led to the latter s dominance in India Battle of Wandiwash (87) 1761 clash between French and British armies in India that led to the latter s dominance in India Bihar earthquake (117) 1934 earthquake that brought Mithila mural painting to the attention of British colonizers Charter Act of 1833 (88) Legislation extended the East India Company s charter in India and allowed Indians to take up any governmental position Durbar (94) Assemblies held by Indian maharajas or, in colonial times, viceroys such as Lytton Elizabethan (91) Historical period in England whose architecture inspired the Viceregal Lodge English Renaissance (91) Period whose architecture inspired the Viceregal Lodge First War of Indian Independence (106) See Mutiny of 1857 India Act (88) 1784 legislation that increased crown oversight of the East India Company Jacobean (91) Historical period in England whose architecture inspired the Viceregal Lodge Jacobethan (91) John Betjeman s term for the Elizabethan-Jacobean period Kanpur Indo-American Program (115) Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur consortium with nine American universities that built Kanpur s research and academic capacities Mutiny of 1857 (106) Indian army uprising; started on 10 May; marked the first nationalist revolt against British colonialism Partition (107) Division of British India into India and akistan in 1947 Salt March (111) 1930 protest led by Gandhi that travelled from Ahmedabad to Dandi to illegally produce salt in protest of the British tax on the commodity Sati (118) Traditional Indian practice of self-immolation by widows World War I (89) Global conflict that also marked the beginnings of greater Indian participation in the colonial administration Industrial Revolution (24) Technological breakthrough resulting in a shift away from agrarian economies; introduced new building materials and techniques; spurred reactionary Pre-Raphaelite movement French Revolution (21) See Revolution of 1789

134 Peloponnesian War (13) Athens s defeat in this conflict caused architecture to stagnate in Greek s Late Classical Period (c BCE) Revolution of 1789 (21) Uprising against the French monarchy following the neoclassical period; Jacques Louis David became a prominent figure Revolutions- Forms that Turn (120) Theme of the 16 th Sydney Biennale that featured The Tables Have Turned World War I (25, 26) Along with the Armory Show, marked New York s replacement of Paris as the center of art; spurred modernist art, including Dada and Cubism World War II (26, 38) Halted organized art movements and the Bauhaus school TIME PERIODS

135 PLACES GLOBAL ART HISTORY

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137 PLACES INDIAN ART HISTORY

138 Achare (115) Home town of Achyut Kanvinde; located in Marashtra Agra (71, 93) Major center of Mughal governance; site of the Taj Mahal; site of Shepherd & Robertson s founding in 1862 Ahmedabad (111) Starting point of the 1930 Salt March; site of Louis Kahndesigned Indian Institute of Management Ajanta (99) Site of 2 nd century BCE Buddhist cave paintings; among the earliest representations of the Buddha in India Al-Fustat (99) Site near Cairo at which early trade cloth from India was found in the nineteenth century, evidencing textile trade from as early as the fifteenth century Alexandria (55) Classic Roman city whose style influenced Gandhara images of the Buddha Allahabad (90) Indian city to which Henry Irwin transferred after completing the Viceregal Lodge in Shimla Amsterdam (120) Current home of Nalini Malani Antioch (55) Classic Roman city whose style influenced Gandhara images of the Buddha Arabian Sea (69) Water body on the historical trade route between India and Europe Ashoka Pillar (113) Structure with a lion capital depicted on all the Mahatma Gandhi Series of banknotes Asia Society Museum (120) New York museum with holdings of Nalini Malani s work Asian Art Museum (80) Owner of Base for a Water Pipe Ayodhya (65) Major holy city for Sikhs; home to Rama in the Ramayana Basilica (102) Roman public building used for law courts and meeting halls; served as the template for English church architecture Bihar (117) Northeastern Indian region from which Mithila painting originates Bodh Gaya (48) Site at which Buddha attained enlightenment Bodleian Library (74) British institution and owner of the Patna s Drawings album Bombay (110) City in which Mahatma Gandhi set up a law practice in 1891 before joining another law firm; home to Nalini Malani Burma (46) Southeast Asian country with a large Buddhist population; borders India Calcutta (89) Major center of governance in British India; center of Kalighat California Institute of Technology (115) painting Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Cambodia (49) Southeast Asian country with a large Hindu population

139 Carnegie Institute of Technology (115) Case Institute of Technology (115) Central Public Works Department (91) Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Former occupant of the Viceregal Lodge in Shimla Ceylon (89) Present-day Sri Lanka; Henry Irwin s place of work from 1866 to 1868 Chandigarh (114) Capital of Punjab and Haryana; Le Corbusier-designed master plan Chemmanthitta (63) Site of famous Kerala murals Chennai (90; 101) Indian city in which Henry Irwin worked; site of St Andrew s Church and St. George s Cathedral; located in Tamil Nadu Cheraman Jum ah Masjid (69) First mosque in India constructed under Malik Dinar in 629 CE; located in Methala, Kerala Chola Dynasty (61) Indian kingdom ruling from the south from the 9 th to 13 th century Cockatoo Island (120) Location of The Tables Have Turned during the 2008 Sydney Biennale Czechoslovakia (96) Country containing major collections of Kalighat paintings Dandi (111) End point of the 1930 Salt March Deccan Plateau (79) Area of the South Asian subcontinent from which bidriware originates; first cultivation of tobacco succeeded here in 1605 Delhi (70) Historic center of Muslim India; site of many major Mughal structures including the Red Fort and Pearl Mosque Dutch Palace (66) Kochi palace known as the Rajah s Palace; acquired this name after the 1663 Dutch renovation of the structure Egypt (49) Early civilization contemporaneous with the Indus Valley s England (87) Major global empire; colonizer of India Fort at Agra (81) Early Mughal structure commissioned by Akbar; built France (87) Major European power; challenger of British ascendancy in India that occupied south India until the mid-eighteenth century Gandhara (55) Province in present day Afghanistan and Pakistan containing the earliest Buddhist images Ganweriwala Thar (50) Important Indus Valley site Government Houses (89) Residences of the Indian Governors-General, Governors, and Lieutenant-Governors

140 Great Bath (50, 52) Complex in Mohenjo-Daro; large pool likely used for ritual Great Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri (81) bathing Early Mughal structure commissioned by Akbar; built 1571 Great Stupa Buddhist stupa constructed in Sanchi, India, c. 3 rd century BCE Greece (89) Ancient civilization; inspired colonial British buildings in India Guernsey (104) Home region of Thomas Fiott de Havilland Gujarat (99) West India region whose trade cloths have been found at Al- Fustat, containing characteristic geese, mythical creatures, lotus flowers, and geometric patterns; home state of Mahatma Gandhi Guruvayur Temple (63) Site of famous Kerala murals damaged in 1970 Harappa (50) Earliest discovered Indus Valley; synonymous with the Harcourt Butler Technological Institute (115) civilization Initial site of the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Harvard (115) Alma mater of Achyut Kanvinde Haryana (114) Indian state with its capital at Chandigarh Hill station (90) British towns in the Himalayan foothills that served as summer retreats for the colonial administration; 80 built between 1815 and 1947 Himachal Pradesh (89) Indian state in which Shimla lies Himachal Pradesh High Court (91) Himachal Pradesh University (91) Former occupant of the Viceregal Lodge in Shimla Former occupant of the Viceregal Lodge in Shimla Hindeloopen (101) Region in northern Netherlands where women wear the wentke robe Hindustan (49) Colonial British term for northwest India India (46) Largest democracy in the world; home to a plurality of Indian Institute of Advanced Study (91) Indian Institute of Management (114) Indian Institute of Technology (114) religions Current occupant of the Viceregal Lodge in Shimla Ahmedabad school whose campus Louis Kahn designed in 1962 Series of five schools established in 1959, including one at Kanpur, meant to advance Indian research and industrialization

141 Indonesia (49) Southeast Asian country with a large Hindu population Indus River (49) Geographical marker indicating the start of Persia s idea of the Hindu lands Indus Valley (49) South Asian region; civilizational origin of Hinduism; flourished BCE Ireland (89) Homeland of Henry Irwin Japan (46) Asian country with a large Buddhist population Kaladay (64) Site of the Sree Sankara Sanskrit College Kalibangan (50) Important Indus Valley site Kalighat temple (95) Calcutta temple; site of Hindu pilgrimate that inspired the development of Kalighat painting Kanpur (114) City containing an Indian Institute of Technology Karachi (120) Birthplace of Nalini Malani in 1946 Kashmir (77) Province of India of disputed sovereignty; its flowers inspired Jahangir s love of floral designs on carpets; site of the Shalimar Gardens Kerala (63) Indian state known for its wall murals; including those of the Rajah s palace; site of India s first mosque Khyber Pass (57) Route between Afghanistan and Pakistan lying along the Silk Road; site of the Seated Buddha s discovery Kiran Nadar Museum of Art (120) Indian museum that held Nalini Malani s first career retrospective in 2014 Kochi (63) Kerala city also known as Cochin; contains the Rajah s Palace Kushan Dynasty (55) First century CE dynasty in Gandhara; produced the earliest images of the Buddha based on Roman styles Lahore (71) Major center of Mughal governance; site of the Mosque of Wazir Khan Lancashire (100) English town; center of many cloth mills during the Industrial Revolution Lanka (65) Kingdom ruled by the demon Ravana in the Ramayan Leo Castelli Gallery (119) New York gallery that displayed James Rosenquist s F-111 in 1965 Lower East Side (119) New York City area in which Claes Oldenburg s The Store was staged Macedonia (87) Center of Alexander the Great s empire Madhubani (117) District in which William G. Archer served and photographed Mithila painting murals in 1934 Madhya Pradesh (59) State containing the Great Stupa at Sanchi Madras (89) Major center of governance in British India

142 Malaysia (49) Southeast Asian country with a large Hindu population Mattancherry Palace (65) See Rajah s Palace Mediterranean Sea (69) Water body on the historical trade route between India and Europe Mesopotamia (49) Early civilization contemporaneous with the Indus Valley s Methala (69) Kerala city with India s first mosque, the Cheraman Jum ah Metropolitan Museum of Art (77) Masjid New York museum containing one of the west s main collections of Mughal carpets, including Indo-Persian Carpet with Medallions MIT (115) Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Mithila (117) Region of Bihar from which the eponymous style originates Mohenjo-daro (50) Indus Valley site; urban planning includes the Great Bath and extensive sanitation systems; now a UNESCO World Heritage Site Mosque of the Prophet (84) Mosque of Wazir Khan (82) Mosque erected in 707 over Muhammad s original burial site Lahore mosque commissioned by Shahjahan; built Mount Harrier (113) Scene shown on the observe of the Gandhi notes Mount Kailash (60) Site in which Shiva may be depicted as living as a renunciate yogi Mucklestone (94) Birthplace of Samuel Bourne; located in Shropshire, England Mysore (90) Indian city in which Henry Irwin constructed many buildings Natal (110) South African region to which Mahatma Gandhi moved in National Council of Applied Economic Research (116) National Science Center (116) 1893 Building constructed by Kanvinde, Rai, and Chowdhury in New Delhi Building constructed by Kanvinde, Rai, and Chowdhury in Delhi Nepal (53) South Asian country; birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama Netherlands (87, 101) Dutch country and importer of Indian chintz, which comprised its wentke robes; major trading power in the early age of colonialism New Delhi (112) City in which Nathuram Godse killed Gandhi in 1948 Nottingham (94) Town where Samuel Bourne settled on his return to England

143 Ohio State University (115) Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Pachmari (89) Indian city in which Henry Irwin constructed many buildings Pakistan (50, 88) South Asian country formed during the 1947 partition; former site of the Indus Valley Civilization Pallava (61) Indian kingdom; began production of bronze sculpture in 8 th Parliament of India building (113) century Scene shown on the observe of the Gandhi notes Pearl Mosque (82) Delhi structure commissioned by Shahjahan; built Peterhof (90) Location of the British Viceroy s residence prior to the Shimla lodge PK Kelkar Library (116) Central library of the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur; renamed as such in 2003; contains three million volumes Porbandar (110) Home town of Mahatma Gandhi Port Blair (113) Scene shown on the observe of the Gandhi notes Princeton (115) Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Punjab (114) Indian state with its capital at Chandigarh Purdue (115) Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque (70) Queen Elizabeth College (104) to 1972 Major Indian mosque built on an earlier temple foundation, constructed in 1198 by Qutb deen Aibak Guernsey college at which Thomas Fiott de Havilland studied Qutb complex (70) 12 th century Islamic complex including the Qutb Minar tower and the Quttat-ul-Islam Mosque Qutb Minar (70) Famous free-standing minaret tower built in the 12 th century under Mu izz al-din Muhammad s rule Rajah s Palace (63, 66) Kochi palace originally built by the Portuguese in 1555; now contains a museum and famous preserved murals Rajasthan (63) Indian state with the highest number of murals in the country Rambagh (81) Agra garden commissioned by Babur in the Timurid style; only surviving example of its form; sits on the east bank of the Yamuna Rashtrapati Niwas (89) Name for the Shimla Viceregal Lodge Red Fort (82) Delhi structure commissioned by Shahjahan; built Red Sea (69) Water body on the historical trade route between India and Europe

144 Rippon Hospital (90) Building designed by Henry Irwin in Shimla Rome (87) Ancient civilization that established the first trade ties with India Royal Meena Bazaar (82) Delhi marketplace at which Shahjahan and Mumtaz Mahal legendarily met on a contrary day Russia (96) Country containing major collections of Kalighat paintings Sanchi (59) Site of the Great Stupa Sarnath (48) Site at which Buddha preached his first sermon Serampore (101) Indian holding of the Danish during the colonial period where William Carey ministered from 1800 Shalimar Gardens (81) Development of the Timurid garden tradition commissioned by Jahangir in Kashmir Shimla (89) British hill station in the Himalayans; effective summer capital of colonial Britain Silk Road (57, 99) Ancient trade route between east and west containing the Khyber Pass Sir J. J. School of Arts (115) Alma mater of Achyut Kanvinde and Nalini Malani South Africa (49, 110) British colony in which Mahatma Gandhi worked from 1893 to 1915 Southeast Asia (46) World region home to many Buddhism and Hinduism practitioners, particularly in Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia Sravati (46) Site of miracle at which Buddha multiplied into many Sree Sankara Sanskrit College (64) individual bodies Institution training Kerala muralists located at Kaladay Sri Lanka (46, 89) South Asia country; large Buddhist population; formerly Ceylon St Andrew s Church (101) Chennai church built under de Havilland and Caldwell; also church in Mumbai built by Portuguese Jesuits in 1575 and another in Calcutta St George s Cathedral (104) St Martins-in-the-fields (102) Chennai church designed by James Caldwell and constructed under Thomas de Havilland, completed in 1816 London church built by James Gibbs and inspiration for many churches worldwide; constructed Stedelijk Museum (120) Amsterdam museum with holdings of Nalini Malani s work Sydney Harbor (120) Location of Cockatoo Island, site of Nalini Malani s The Tables Have Turned in the sixteenth Biennale of Sydney Taj Ganj (83) Marketplace built on the Taj Mahal site

145 Taj Mahal (82) Crown of Palaces ; Agra building commissioned by Shahjahan as a tomb for his wife; also known as building of the illuminated tomb, holy tomb, or building of the pure tomb ; World Heritage Site Tamil Nadu (101) Southern Indian state; home to Chennai Tarbett (89) Irish town in County Kerry; birthplace of Henry Irwin Thodeekkalam (63) Site of famous Kerala murals Thrissur (63) Site of famous Kerala murals Trafalgar Square (103) Central location in London; contains St Martin s-in-the-fields UNESCO World Heritage Site (52) University of California at Berkeley (115) University of Michigan (115) UN designation recognizing sites of exceptional importance to world history Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Participant in the Kanpur Indo-American Program from 1962 to 1972 Uttar Pradesh (115) State in which the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur lies Viceregal Lodge (89, 90) Building constructed by Henry Irwin in Shimla in 1888; current site of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study Victoria and Albert Museum (77, 96) London museum containing major collection of Mughal carpets; holder of John Lockwood Kipling s Kalighat painting collection West Indies (103) Colonial region whose churches architecture borrowed from English pattern books such as James Gibbs Book of Architecture Yale University Art Gallery (116) Louis Kahn building completed in 1953; infuluenced the design of PK Kelkar Library Yamuna River (81) River alongside which Agra sits TERMS-ELEMENTS OF ART

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147 TERMS- TWO-DIMENSIONAL ART

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150 TERMS MISCELLANEOUS Aesthetics (6) Exploration of beauty and its expression; intersects with art history Aftabi (75) Sunshade; appears in The Emperor Shahjahan Riding held by a servant above the emperor

151 Angula (56) Basic unit of the canon of proportions of the Buddha; represents a fingers length Anthropology (6) Along with sociology and history, sister discipline of art history Anustubh (65) 32 syllable meter used in the Ramayana Apauruseya (49) Sanskrit term for not of human agency, referring to the origins of the Vedas from the god Brahma Art criticism (6) Informs the public of events in the art world through news media Art history (6) Examination of social, cultural, and economic contexts to understand art Ayana (65) Sanskrit term for going or advancing; component of the Babu Rao Mhatre Gold Medal (116) Ramayana s name Lifetime achievement award given to Achyut Kanvinde by the Indian Institute of Architects in 1985 Bauhaus (114) Major post-war avant-garde institution that influenced modern architecture Bhakti (49) Sanskrit term for devotion; refers to the practice of true Hinduism; school of Hinduism believing that anyone regardless of caste can attain salvation Bodhi (55) Type of tree under which the Buddha meditated and reached enlightenment Brutalism (114) Style of architecture that emphasizes plainness of form and function, using rough concrete forms Buddhism (46) Major Indian religion centered on the teachings of Buddha; focuses on the attainment of nirvana Chini khanas (80) China rooms, architectural features popular in the Mughal dynasty that would display China porcelain in multiple niches; appears in Base for a Water Pipe Contextual analysis (6) Peruses an artwork s historical context to discover its meaning Contrary day (81) Day on which normal social roles reversed; for instance, upper class women acted as shopkeepers to lower class subjects in the Royal Meena Bazaar Dharma (46) Buddhist term for the law, referring to the Four Noble Truths that must be attained through the Eightfold Path, ultimately leading believers to nirvana; also refers to the Hindu code of laws, responsibilities, and morals that create universal order and differ by caste, gender, and age Dhoti (113) Trademark clothing of Mahatma Gandhi; white, draped cloth that he wears around his neck in the banknotes portrait

152 Dhyana (57) Meditative pose in which the Buddha often appears Doli (66) Human-powered vehicle without wheels used to transport ancient Indian kings and nobles; some examples remain in the Rajah s Palace museum Eight Fold Path (46) Set of eight practices that help Buddhists overcome worldly desire and suffering and attain nirvana; includes right understanding, thought, speech, behavior, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and focus Enlightened imperialism (101) Edmund Burke s philosophy that Great Britain had an imperial responsibility to improve Indian civilization Fine art (7) Focus of early art historians; limited to paintings, prints, drawings, sculptures, and architecture Formal analysis (7) Peruses an artwork s formal qualities to discover its meaning Four Noble Truths (46) Main law of Buddhism; stipulates that life means suffering, desire causes suffering but can be overcome via the Eight- Fold Path Fractional representation (13) French Government Scholarship for Fine Arts (120) Fukuoka Prize for Art and Culture (120) Ancient Egyptian method of depicting human figures: the head and lower body appear in profile while the torso faces the viewer Scholarship under which Nalini Malani studied in Paris from 1970 to 1972 Award given to Nalini Malani in 2013 Fumo (17) Italian word for smoke; word root of sfumato Gossypium arboretum (98) Scientific name of cotton Hasht bihisht (84) Eight paradises of the Quran; inspired the octagonal structures often found in Mughal gardens Hinduism (46) Major Indian religion with a polytheistic pantheon of gods, including the main trinity of Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma; dominant religion in India; sacred texts include the Vedas, the Ramayana and the Mahayana History (6) Along with anthropology and sociology, sister discipline of art history Howdah (97) Small carriage holding hunters on the back of elephants in India International Style (115) School of architecture within which Achyut Kanvinde works Jawab (83) Answer; function of a building constructed to provide aesthetic balance, for example the building to the east of the Taj Mahal

153 Karma (48) Buddhist and Hindu term referring to merit gained through good works, such as donating to temples, and conversely ill fortune due to bad deeds; causal principle of all life Konrai (61) Flower that Shiva often holds Kufic (79) Angular script used in Islamic calligraphy Lakshanas (56) Markings on the Buddha that demonstrate his divine, enlightened status Last Supper (64) Major Christian event often depicted in murals in Kerala churches Latin (14) International language during the medieval period Lead Me from Darkness to Light (115) Motto of the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Linga (61) Stone pillar representing Shiva in inner temple sanctums Maharaja (92) Sanskrit for great king; term referring to the successor states princes who functioned as puppet rulers under colonial Britain Mahatma (112) Sanskrit for Great Soul ; honorific used for Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi Series (113) Banknotes issued by the Reserve Bank of India; comes in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 Mahayana (48) School of Buddhism believing that salvation could be accessed by all; emphasized the divine aspects of Buddha s being Mahout (97) Indian elephant trainer typically employed to drive elephants during hunts Mandala (59) Buddhist term for a sacred diagram of the world Megaliths (9) Literally, great stones ; date from the New Stone Age; rocks weighed up to 50 tons and measured as much as 17 feet tall Mirab (76) Arrow in a mosque s wall that indicates the direction of Mecca towards which adherents face in prayer Modernists (114) Architectural school promoted futuristic, international architecture rather than tradition-influenced buildings Moksa (49) Hinduism belief in salvation from reincarnation Naskhi (79) Cursive script used in Islamic calligraphy Ngil (32) Ritual involving wooden fang masks and supposedly exposed sorcerers; culture groups in nineteenth-century Gabon practiced this ceremony Nirvana (46) State of peace and freedom from suffering that forms Buddhism s ultimate goal; achieved through the Eightfold Path that pursues Four Noble Truths

154 Numismatics (109) Study of currency, from primitive objects used as means of exchange to modern banknotes Numismatist (109) Practitioner of numismatics Occident (107) European term referring to the west, generally perceived as superior Orient (107) European term for the east, comprising Asia, Middle East, and Africa; had connotations of inferiority, primitivism, and exoticism Orientalism (107) European conceptualizations of the east as exotic, underdeveloped and backward, described by Edward Said as justifying imperial colonialism Padma Shree (116) Fourth highest civilian award in India; awarded to Achyut Kanvinde in 1976 Parinirvana (55) State of complete nirvana achieved with physical death Persian (88) Initial language of governance of colonial India Raj (88) Hindi for rule; referred to the British rule in India from 1858 to 1947 Rajas (63) More active, hot-tempered characters shown in red or yellow in Kerala murals Revivalists (114) Architectural school promoting the use of traditional Indian forms Samsara (46) Buddhist cycle of life, death, and reincarnation that perpetuates suffering; escaped through the attainment of nirvana; also refers to reincarnation in Hinduism Sanghati (56) Draped monastic robe in which the Buddha often appears Sanskrit (49) Traditional language of Hinduism brought by Aryans to India around 1500 BCE Sattva (63) Pure deities shown in green in Kerala murals Satyagraha (111) Devotion to the truth; Gandhian principle that formed the basis of his nonviolent resistance Siraschakra (61) Head-wheel ; halo shown at the back of Shiva s head Smrti (49) Sanskrit term for what is remembered, referring to humanauthored secondary texts of Hinduism Sociology (6) Along with anthropology and history, sister discipline of art history Sruti (49) Sanskrit term for what is heard, referring to the origins of the Vedas from the god Brahma Sunni (71) Largest sect of Islam to which the Mughals belonged Tamil (61) Language dominant in India s south

155 Theravada (48) Traditional school of Buddhism that emphasized meditative images of the human Buddha s model of righteousness in its art Three Jewels of Buddhism (59) Doctrine of the Buddha, the Law, and the Sangha symbolized in stupas chatras Throne of God (85) Seat of god described in the Quran as appearing above paradise on the day of judgment; symbolized by the Taj Mahal, which therefore represents the most revered burial place Tobacco (79) New world plant brought to India by Portuguese sailors in the late sixteenth century; inspired the creation of bidriware forms to serve in its smoking such as Base for a Water Pipe Unmattai (61) Flower that Shiva often holds Urna (57) Lakshana appearing as a mole on the Buddha s forehead Ushnisha (56) Lump on the Buddha s head indicating his wisdom and insight; sometimes shown as a secondary brain Vahana (50) Vehicle; animal mount that many Hindu deities ride in depictions Vihara (59) Buddhist monks cell Visual culture (6) Film, photography, television, advertisement posters, and similar works Wheel of Law (55) Eight-spoked wheel common in Buddhist art representing the Wheel of Law ya takht ya takhta (71) The throne or the coffin; principle of Mughal succession that resulted in inter-familial strife in order to inherit rule TEXTS Patna s Drawings (74) Album of miniature paintings created under Shahjahan; only surviving albu from the mid-seventeenth century, now owned by the British Library; commissioned by Prince Dara-Shikoh in 1633 for his wife Nadira Banu Begum; completed 1642; contains 41 paintings, including The Emperor Shahjahan Riding, with the Aftabi or Sunshade Held Over His Head Royal Photographic Album (95) Collection of 101 photographic prints from the 1877 and 1903 durbars in India; contains the Ram Singh print; now held by the British Library Agamas (66) Mantras and hymns used to worship sacred images Baburnama (71) Babur s memoirs in which he decries the lack of charm and civilizational comforts in Hindustan Bhagavad Gita (64) Famous text within the Mahayana known for its lyrical expression of devotion Book of Architecture (103) Reference and pattern book published by James Gibbs in 1728; inspired the design of Chennai s St Andrew s Church Brahmanas (98) Commentary on the Vedas

156 British Journal of Photography (94) Cassandra: A Novel and Four Essays (120) Publisher of Samuel Bourne s photographic journals from India from 1863 to 1870 Christa Wolf novel; published 1984; re-tells the story of Cassandra, daughter of Priam; excerpted in The Tables Have Turned Dhyana Slokas (63) Texts describing in detail the spiritually correct portrayals of Hindu deities in images History of British India (118) 1826 work by James Mill that argued that women s status in India reflected the lack of progress of its society Indian Constitution (107) Document formalizing India s independence from British protection, implemented January 26, 1950 Indian Engineering (90) Late nineteenth century Calcutta journal that reported in October 1888 on Henry Irwin s work in Shimla and transfer to Allahabad Indian Independence Act (107) Legislation dividing British India into India and Pakistan in 1947 Instrument of Accession (92) Official document marking the maharaja s absorption into independent India or Pakistan Journal of the Photographic Society of Bombay (93) Early publication about photography first appearing in 1855 Kumarasambhava 64 (66) Epic poem by the Sanskrit poet Kalidasa illustrated in the Rajah s Palace murals Mahabharata (64) Major Hindu epic containing the famed Bhagavad Gita; translated into Persian under Akbar Muraqqa (74) Albums commissioned by Mughal royals to serve as private luxury objects, such as the Patna s Drawings album Orientalism (107) 1978 book by Edward Said describing the worldview of European colonizers that justified imperialism as civilizing the backward Orient Purana tales (66) Hindu tales illustrated in the Rajah s Palace murals Quran (73) Holy scripture of Islam; frequently quoted and illustrated in Islamic calligraphy Ramayana (64) Major Hindu epic recounting the price Rama s quest to rescue his wife from the demon king Ravana while providing moral lessons and Hindu doctrines; translates to Rama s Journey Rig Veda (98) Ancient Indian text that describes the universe as a fabric woven by the deities The History of the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi (95) The Location of Culture (1994) (107) 1877 publication authored by J. Talboys Wheeler, organizer of the 1877 durbar of Lord Lytton Homi Bhabha book theorizing colonized cultures use of mimicry and hybridity to resist colonization Toward Equality (119) Indian government report issued in 1974 that found that women s position had actually been harmed by recent developments Tuhfat al-ahrar (75) The Gift to the Noble; narrative poem written in by Jami containing 20 moral parables about religion; written for the Naqshbandi s leader 64 Not going to lie, I thought - an epic poem about sweet potatoes? Turns out Kumara refers to Shiva s son Kartikeya. -Jac

157 Upanishads (98) Ancient Indian text that describes the universe as a fabric woven by the deities Vedas (49) Sanskrit term for knowledge; sacred text forming the foundation of Hinduism; thought to have been passed down by the god Brahma The Lives of the Artists (8) Collection of Italian artist biographies by Giorgio Vasari ( ); demonstrated the Renaissance concept of artistic genius Natural History (8) Ancient Roman Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) s analyses of art Old Testament (23) Part of the Bible influencing Baroque artist Artemisia Gentileschi Quran (31) Holy book of Islam; contains Muhammad s revelations; featured in notable Islamic art; generally richly detailed and patterned ARTISTIC TERMS INDIA Carpet page (73) Pages in Islamic miniature paintings covered completely with patterns mimicking those of Persian carpets A holy man in the forest (118) Mithila painting by Jogmaya Devi possibly depicting Shiva as the Lord of the Animals, Pashupati Alms bowls (47) Object frequently associated with Buddhist monks; symbolizes aspects of Buddhist practice Ashes (47) Legendary remnants of the Buddha distributed throughout relic stupas Anda (58) Dome of a Buddhist stupa; symbolizes the universe Apse (102) Far end of Roman basilica that seated court officials; later held the chancel altar in Christian churches Arabesque (78) Style of decoration used in Indo-Persian Carpet with Medallions Arcades (90) Enclosing feature containing verandas in the Viceregal Lodge Architraves (50) Part of the upper section of the Great Stupa; contain narrative scenes and Buddhist symbols Bandanna (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Basilica (102) Roman public building after which many English churches were modeled, including St-Martins-in-the-Fields Bay (102) Part of the nave in English churches modeled after basilica, including St-Martins-in-the-Fields Bell tower (48) Common Buddhist architectural form used in worship Bhootha-mala (63) Part of the Pancha-mala; depicts goblins and dwarves Bidriware (79) Style of metalwork developed in Bidar, in the Indian Deccan; uses an alloy of zinc, copper, tin, and lead coated with sal ammoniac to create a matte surface against which bright inlays stand out strongly Birch bark (47) Material often used to create Buddhist art

158 Block printing (99) Method of stamping designs to create patterned cotton fabrics; applied through mechanized engraved copper plates, roller-printing, and silkscreens in modern workshops Bronze (47) Metal often used to create Buddhist art and Hindu sculptures, particularly of Shiva Buddha s footprints (48) Large structures marking places where the Buddha legendarily trod in his lifetimes Butter carving (47) Unusual form of Buddhist art Calico (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Chaitya (58) Buddhist hall of worship Chancel altar (102) Feature in the apse of English churches modeled after basilica Chatras (58) Circular disks topping the yasti in a Buddhist stupa; symbolizes Buddhism s three jewels Chintz (100) Term referring to European-imported Indian fabric; derived from chitta Chithra-mala (63) Part of the Pancha-mala; depicts abstract designs Chitta (100) Spotted ; root word of chintz Cinnabar (73) Pigment used in miniature paintings Clay (47) Material often used to create Buddhist art Crenellation (90) Feature of the Viceregal Lodge s roof line Dado frieze (85) Type of carving appearing on the Taj Mahal depicting low-relief flowering plants Dammar (61) Shal tree resin used in Indian bronze sculpture creation during the lostwax casting technique Diaper pattern (101) Pattern shown with ribbons and floral sprays intertwined in Robe Drum tower (48) Common Buddhist architectural form used in worship Dry lacquer (47) Pottery material often used to create Buddhist art Dungaree (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Embroidered silk (47) Fabric often used to create Buddhist art Englishman on Tiger Hunt (97) 17 x 11 Kalighat painting owned by the Victoria and Albert Museum F-111 (119) Anti-war painting by James Rosenquist displayed at the Leo Castelli gallery in 1965; 85 feet long and 10 feet high Flying shuttle (100) Mechanism invented by John Key in 1733 that sped up weaving of cloth by British artisans Fresco secco (63) Fresco technique used in Kerala murals that paints directly onto the dry plaster wall Gingham (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Gold (47) Rare metal often used to create Buddhist art Grisaille (75) Gray and brown tones of shading; appears on the border of The Emperor Shahjahan Riding Happening (119) Series of installation art performances staged by Allan Kaprow in the 1950s Harmika (58) Fence surrounding a Buddhist stupa s yasti; bounds the heavenly sphere

159 Hybridity (107) Technique by which postcolonial artists reclaim colonial practices; theorized in The Location of Culture Image hall (48) Common Buddhist architectural form used in worship Installation art (119) Late 20 th century art form involving site-specific, multimedia art; exemplified by Claes Oldenburg s 1961 The Store Ivory (47) Substance often used to create Buddhist art Jade (47) Gemstone often used in creating Buddhist art Kalighat painting (95) Style of popular painting developed at the strat of the nineteenth century; largely replaced by woodcuts and engravings Khaki (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Knotted wool rug (76) Turkish style of carpet weaving originated 2,500 years ago, used both for functional and luxury purposes and later becoming a trademark Islamic art form used in mosques; likely introduced to India by Akbar in the late seventeenth century Lithographs (95) Style of printing that replaced Kalighat painting by the 20 th century Lost-wax casting technique (61) Sculptural technique used to create Chola bronze sculptures Lotus (46) Buddhist symbol; legendarily bloomed wherever the Buddha trod; motif in Gujarat textiles Makara (61) Earring on the right ear of Shiva; a masculine lion or snake Mimicry (107) Technique by which postcolonial artists reclaim colonial practices; theorized in The Location of Culture Miniature painting (72) Persian art form developed in the 13 th century and later adopted by India; frequently appears in Islamic books and albums depicting literary texts, the emperor, and natural scenery and illustrated with calligraphy Mithila painting (117) Style of folk painting traditionally practiced by women in mural form; originates from its eponymous region in Bihar, northeastern India Mordant (99) Metal oxides that act as catalysts by binding with dyes to coat the cotton fiber for a permanent dye Multiple printing (48) Technique of creating repeated prints which Robert Fisher describes as inspired by Buddhist needs; earliest examples of its woodblock prints date from the 8 th century Muruga-mala (63) Part of the Pancha-mala; depicts animals e.g. elephants and deer Pagodas (48) Common Buddhist architectural form used in worship Pajama (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Pakshi-mala (63) Part of the Pancha-mala; depicts parrot-like birds Palm leaves (47) Material often used to create Buddhist art Pancha-mala (63) Five garlands decoration system of Kerala murals Pancha-vama (63) Five-color scheme of Kerala murals using red, yellow, green, black, and white Pashupati Seal (118) Mohenjo-daro seal thought to depict a proto-shiva figure Patuas (96) Term for Kalighat painters, who worked in an assembly-line style of production Pen work (99) Painting of mordants onto textiles using a split bamboo reed or pen

160 Pile (77) Knots, or tufts of fiber, added to the carpet s warp to create a color patterning in Islamic carpets Polychrome (82) Decoration used on Humayun s tomb Porcelain (47) Substance often used to create Buddhist art Qāli (77) Islamic process of creating woven knotted carpets with colorful patterning Relief carving (50) Style of sculpture against an existing surface; used in the earliest Hindu cave temples Reliquary (47) Container for ashes, originally used to hold the Buddha s ashes or those of other important Buddhists and often placed in stupas Resin (63) Finish applied to Kerala murals to provide a glossy surface Resist (99) Molten wax or paste on a fabric s surface that prevents other materials from being absorbed, keeping the basic color intact Reverse painting (120) Technique used in The Tables Have Turned Sal ammoniac (79) Rare mineral used in the mud paste coating of bidriware to create a dark, matte surface upon polishing Sand painting (48) Unusual form of Buddhist art Sandalwood (56) Sculptural material used to carve the Udayana Buddha Sash (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Schist (58) Material used in the seated Buddha Shadow plays (118) Medium in which Nalini Malani works Shawl (101) Type of fabric whose name derives from Indian root terms Soapstone (53) Sculptural material used to create Indus Valley seals as well as Bust of a man, possibly a priest Staff (47) Buddhist relic revered in stupas Stone (47) Material often used to create Buddhist art Stupas (47) Large mound structure; one of Buddhism s main architectural forms; contains five main types that all serve to guide Buddhists in their worship via circumambulation Symbolic pillars (47) Earliest form of Buddhist art dating from the 3 rd century BCE, inspired by Indian pillars drawing on Persian capitals that had similarly been worshipped in earlier centuries The Store (119) Claes Oldenburg 1961 installation art, with a series of plaster sculptures placed in an empty Lower East Side storefront The Tables Have Turned (118) Installation art created by Nalini Malani in Sydney in 2008 Toranas (58) Gates to enter a Buddhist stupa s fence, placed at the compass points Ukiyo-e (96) Japanese woodblock printing contemporary to Kalighat painting Ultramine (73) Pigment used in miniature paintings Vana-mala (63) Part of the Pancha-mala; depicts flowers Vellum (73) Material used in illuminated manuscripts in medieval Europe; weathered better than Islamic paper albums Vihara (58) Buddhist monastery residence hall

161 Votive figure (48) Art form depicting important figures, often appearing in Buddhist temples in large quantities Warp (76) Carpet strands that run across the warp; contain the knots in Islamic carpets Weft (76) Carpet strands that run across the width Wentke (101) Type of Dutch robe; used Indian chintz from the mid-eighteenth century; lightweight and open clothing used only on special occasions and often with other decorative cotton clothing White elephant (46) Animal which Buddha s mother dreamed entered her womb one night, presaging the Buddha s birth Wood (47) Material often used to create Buddhist art Yasti (58) Pillar atop a Buddhist stupa s anda; symbolizes the world s axis and connects heaven and earth

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174 65 65 The guide says that Tutankhamun s rule begins in 1361 this is a clear typo, as Tutankhamun succeeded Akhenaton, not the other way around

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184 PRACTICE TEST ANALYSIS Overall, this test focuses more on the social context of art than mastery of the artworks a trend you may have noticed in the guide s focus as well. Direct questions on art features take up only about 20% of the test (11, 19, 22, 26, 27, 31, 32, 37, 43, 47, 50), though Buddhist and Hindu period artworks have comparatively few questions. Two questions to take note of: Question 19 refers to the early producers of Buddha statues under the Kushan dynasty (c) who brought in Roman craftsmen, though note that Greco-Roman influence also appears later in context of St Andrew's Church, which is modeled after a Greco-Roman temple front. One perhaps plausible distracter on the stupa pillars should remind you instead of the church s columns, which resemble those of Greco-Roman temples. Question 26 also has multiple possible answers, but the direct textual evidence supports E, although the simplicity of subjects (given the lack of backdrops) and colors likely also helped. You can eliminate woodblock printing immediately, as this supplanted Kalighat painting, not facilitated it. Meanwhile, questions on general social context make up about 20% of the test, or 25% of the non-slide questions, particularly on the colonial period (34-5, 41, 44, and 49). Surprisingly, question 41 tests your knowledge of dates although this should be no problem, given how frequently it appears across all the guides. For question 49, D is the only one with no support in the guide, and is contradicted by the examples of British restoration of Mohenjo-Daro and Rajah's Palace (putting aside any plans to dismantle Indian buildings and ship them to London!) Similarly, the answer to 13 is Buddhism, the religion that the guide mentions in context of nirvana. You may note that this idea does form a core goal of Hinduism and Jainism, albeit expressed in other terms, given that they share a focus on reincarnation and karma. Luckily, the test writer gave you a throwaway answer to eliminate immediately Norse ideals is quite clearly a troll! Other questions evince a focus on periodization and context rather than art form and knowledge in particular 11, 20, 23, 31, and 48. Many questions also test cross-time period influences, requiring you to have a good grasp of the guide s chronology and art styles (17, 19, 21, 36, 38, 47). Pay attention to question 19 its reference to Mohenjo-daro actually appears in the section on Mithila painting later in the guide, in context of the city s seal depicting a proto-shiva as the lord of animals. Lastly, note that the answer to question 45 is B, the only option with direct evidence. C and E arguably constitute evidence of British enlightened imperialism and Orientalist attitudes in 'saving' Indian culture from decline, but James Mill s history represents a much clearer critique of Indian civilization.

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186 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Jacqueline Khor hates writing full sentences about herself in the third-person, being used to writing about others in the third-person bullet-pointed form. She competed with Raffles Girls School a long time ago in World Scholars Cup66 and joined Demidec in June 2010, though she is not actually as old as that date might suggest. She currently studies sociology at the National University of Singapore and works as a research assistant in her spare time this summer. In reality, she has no spare time but nevertheless reads gruesome fiction by Jo Nesbo when she is not writing power guides or editing flashcards. She hopes someday to have sufficient spare brain cells to read the Deleuze collecting dust on her bookshelf, but in the meantime geeks out on tumblr over Sara Ahmed, Donna Haraway, Helene Cixous, and other intellectual heroes. You can find her there with a bit of googling or contact her at j.khortp@gmail.com to discuss the merits of Le Corbusier as an urban planner. Josephine Richstad is the Director of Curriculum at DemiDec and the World Scholar's Cup. She holds a Ph.D. in English from UCLA; a B.A, also in English, from Columbia University; and a Ph.T. from Cornell Law School. She first joined DemiDec as a writer in 2008, beginning her alpaca-centric collaboration with Daniel over breakfast at a Malibu diner shortly before going underground at a Charles Dickens festival. She is about six weeks away from a move to Albany, New York, where she will continue to divide her time between tending her family (including a daughter who infamously savaged Daniel's favorite stuffed alpaca), refusing to believe in economics, masterminding the production of DemiDec materials, and avoiding international flights. ABOUT THE EDITOR By the end of this DemiSeason, she will have given birth to her second child. Please complaints, corrections, job applications, and suggestions for boy names to josephine@demidec.com. 66 No, you do not get any photos of me holding trophies. Or alpacas. Mostly alpacas. The stuffed kind. I don t think Daniel ever managed to capture a live one and ship it to Singapore.