Application of 3D body scanning technology to human measurement for clothing Fit

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1 Application of 3D body scanning technology to human measurement for clothing Fit Department of Clothing Design & Technology, Manchester Metropolitan University, England, UK doi: /jdcta.vol4.issue7.6 Abstract Complications with garment sizing and poor fit inconvenience many consumers who become dissatisfied with such provision on the high street. It is evident that human measurement and classification of the human body based on size and shape are precedent to accurate clothing fit and therefore fundamental to production and consumption. With advancement in technology, automated 3D body scanners designed to capture the shape and size of a human body in seconds and further produce its true-to-scale 3D body model have been developed. The use of data generated is extensive; and include anthropometric dimensions and morphology for the creation of avatars and mannequins. This technology is currently viewed as the frontier in solving fit problems, for instance by generating accurate data for the development of size charts, enabling a pragmatic approach to the offer of mass customisation and also facilitating virtual model fit trials that enhance online clothing shopping experiences. Consumers have become savvier than ever and as the demand for well-fitted garments is increasing, 3D body scanning technology is being viewed as a significant bridge between craftsmanship and computer-aided design technologies. Currently being explored by academic research and not as yet widely implemented across retail sectors, it is expected to facilitate consumer satisfaction and reduce commercial waste due to ill-fit returns. There is therefore a vital need to authenticate procedures and establish systems for practice. This paper seeks to assess the application of one such technology to human measurement for clothing provision and tests procedures for its implementation. The methodology presents a case study approach involving the use of one such stateof-the-art technology in the acquisition of measurement data at a metropolitan university in the UK, and advises on the application of the 3D body scanner in research and sampling activities. Keywords: 3D body scanning technology, Clothing, Computer-aided design (CAD) 1. Introduction The search for perfect clothing fit has a long history relating to various efforts to determine body anthropometry for the development of patterns and garments in the clothing industry (Apeagyei, et al., 2007; Otieno et al., 2005; Fan & Hunter, 2004). The shapes of human figure types continue to change mainly due to sedentary lifestyles, dietary habits, migration patterns and the impact of rising trends that affect body shape ideals. (Apeagyei, 2008; Workman & Lentz, 2000; Tamburrino, 1992a; 1992b and 1992c). Generally, the most notable differences in body size and shape relate to ethnic diversity, age and gender. In principle, females are smaller than their male counterparts except in hip dimensions. With age increase, many adults become shorter and many also heavier (Kroemer & Grandjean, 1997). This necessitates regular monitoring of human measurement especially for the achievement and provision of adequate clothing. Anthropometric research nonetheless can be time consuming and costly. As well as being considered proprietary, precise, detailed information on applications, techniques and resulting data is not easily accessible in the public domain. 2. National sizing survey and body shape issues Prior to UK s national sizing survey in in which 3D body scanners were employed, body measurement data dating as far back as 1950 were being used in pattern development and sizing for clothing. Results of this survey (Shape Analysis, 2009) showed that there has been a significant 58

2 International Journal of Digital Content Technology and its Applications Volume 4, Number 7, Octber 2010 change in human body size overall, with both genders. With women for example (Table 1), the average person has increased in key dimensions, as much as an overwhelming 16cm on the waist. Table 1. UK national sizing surveys key dimensions of average female FEMALE Bust Waist Hips Height Weight 1951 statistics statistics (difference) (+4) (+16) (+4) (+4) (+3) The objective of garment sizing is to divide standardized dimensions for the body and garments into categories, with the aim to fit the maximum number of people with the minimum number of sizes; however size charts vary. Body measurement charts indicate sample coverage of body measurements for the designated population, using standard deviation values. Recent studies involving the application 3D body scanning technology have confirmed the existence of various female body shapes (Apeagyei, 2008; Faust et al., 2006, Simmons et al., 2004), even within specific size categories. Therefore, establishing a relationship between body size and shape in the provision of adequate clothing is vital. Due to complexities in methodology and financial implications involving the collection of body size data, retailers and manufacturers tend to treat body measurements and sizing data they have often accumulated over years of practice and through trial and error as proprietary. This presents variation of sized clothing and sizing communication across markets, especially on the high street and confuses consumers. Size UK was sponsored by seventeen leading high street retailers who were keen to identify up-todate body size and shape differences among various demographics, in order to provide better fitted clothing for consumers. 11,000 men and women from various parts of Britain were measured (Size UK, 2009). Shape GB sizing survey for children in Britain had similar intentions and likewise utilised the 3D body scanner. Sponsored by a consortium of high street retailers, it sought to generate up-todate information on the changing shape and size of children between ages four to seventeen (Shape GB, 2009). Since the first application of a 3D body scanner for a national survey (Size UK), body scanners have been used for several national size surveys for example in USA, China, Spain, Mexico, Thailand, France, Korea and Taiwan. It is anticipated that results from national surveys would provide significant benefits such as new knowledge in human growth and measurements; up-to-date body size & shape data for manufacturers and retailers; statistical analysis on anthropometric demographics; establishment of new size charts and improved clothing size standards. 3. D body scanning technology Pantano & Naccarato (2010) analysed the importance of advanced technologies and outlined their influences on consumers experience and satisfaction in the retail environment. Interaction, personalisation and visualisation were all deemed as vital to the successful implementation of such technologies to meet needs. The development of 3D body scanning technology allows for the quick and consistent extraction of body measurements and can generate customised fit for any number of people. As well as linear measurements, scanning can easily extract a vast number of data types and measurements relating to shapes, angles, and relational data points (Simmons & Istook, 2001). For the clothing industry, scanners capture an accurate 3D representation of a garment s relationship to the body while minimising visual distraction (Ashdown et al., 2004). The extracted measurements and the virtual picture are the foundation for individual pattern construction and digital data management. The 3D image allows instant evaluation regarding validity of the scan; and the dimensions and shape data could be used repeatedly for various garments without the need for repeated measurement. The measurements obtained using this technology is more precise and reproducible than those obtained through the traditional, physical measurement process. Measurement data can be renewed or revised at any time. The 3D scanning technologies used for body measurement extraction on today s market are based on various systems. Although there are variability and incomparability of measurements between them (Simmons & Istook, 2003), their common aim is to scientifically extract anthropometric data in a valid and reliable manner. They are mainly based on: 59

3 Laser scanning: these scanners work on the basis of a light-plane and triangulation method. A laser is used as a light source and a technology called CCD (couple charged device) scans the field of view. The CCD detects the displacement of the light on a body. Body scanners based on laser technology are able to scan about 60,000 points per second. Structured or White Light scanning: body scanners with structured light technology work with projectors. They project a series of white-light stripes on to the subject and are captured via cameras. The 3D shape of the body is described through the curve of the stripes over the subject. Studies have shown that during the scanning sequence light projection systems are faster than laser based systems. But for measurement extraction, these types of scanners sustain a bit more time (Istook and Hwang, 2001). Human Solutions (formally TechMath): Human Solutions s 3D body scanner (eg. Vitus Smart XXL) is based on laser technology. Using 8 sensor heads and an optical triangulation process, it acquires approximately 140 body dimensions in a 3D image of the body, in 12 seconds. Data can be exported in ASCII, OBJ, STL and DXF formats (Human Solutions, 2009). Cyberware (Digisize): these whole body 3D scanners (eg. Model WBX) extract over 100 measurements of the body in 17 seconds. 4 scan heads collect 3D measurements every 2 mm from head to toe to create an accurate 3D data set. The scanning process captures an array of digitized points represented by x, y, and z coordinates for shape. 3D rendering tools allow the operator to view the 3D scan data immediately on completion of the scan (Cyberware, 2009). Wicks and Wilson (TriForm /TriBody): these body scanners use white light to capture the 3D scan data in approximately 12 seconds via 8 camera views. Stripes of safe white light are used to capture the 3D shape of a person. The harmless light contains no invisible rays, lasers or other radiation. Resulting images are analysed automatically by the TriBody software and processed to produce a 3D point cloud model containing approximately 1.5 million 3D co-ordinates (x,y,z). Resulting 3D scans can be saved in different output formats (Wilks and Wilson, 2009). Telmat (SYMCAD ): Telmat s turbo flash/3d System for Measuring and Creating Anthropometric Database (SYMCAD) utilises structured light. A set of white light stripes is projected onto the subject for data capture. Its new ST (Special Tracking) version applies 3D digitising to its data capture for accuracy due to errors with natural body sway movements and underwear reflectance (Telmat Industrie, 2009). [TC]² Body Measurement System: [TC]² s Nx16 body scanner system is a 3D measuring system that utilises optical lenses that produce a digital copy of surface geometry of the body. Based on white light technology and Phase Mapping Profilometry (PMP), it scans the whole body in approximately 8 seconds ([TC]², 2009). Similar to Telmat s SYMCAD, it uses light sources to project structured lines / patterns and cameras to capture the image. It also produces approximately 140 body measurements with a 3D body model via point cloud data form. 4. Methodology Objectives of this work included infrastructural development for utilisation of the body scanner and procedural setup to facilitate research and training. The [TC]² model NX16 body scanner was selected based on an initial benchmarking of procedures and suitability for purpose; technical parameters and responses from potential subjects regarding choice of technology (safe white light, not skin-deep intrusive, non-contact) in a pre-pilot study. Ethical issues relating to the involvement of human participants this area of study were addressed in line with the Economic and Social Research Council s proposed framework. This particularly concerned conflict of interest, quality and integrity of such a study (Apeagyei et al., 2007). Subsequently, subjects were invited to participate, made aware of all the procedures and provided with guidelines regarding measurement and other ethical aspects including right of veto. This study involved the development of an infrastructure for measurement and an anthropometric pilot study where men and women were measured using a 3D body scanner. It focused on collating raw body measurement data for the revision of size charts and testing of clothing fit. Although statistical analysis of the study is presented in a subsequent paper, aspects of the procedures and outcomes are presented in this paper. Through the scanner s option for processing measurement of population samples in batches, the measurement data of 191 female subjects (aged 19-44) was exported 60

4 International Journal of Digital Content Technology and its Applications Volume 4, Number 7, Octber 2010 into Excel and SPSS and statistically analysed for the development of a revised size chart. This was based on the MMU model (Otieno, 2008; Beazley, 1999; 1998; 1997) to produce verifiable size charts for pedagogical activities. 5. Discussion of findings The pilot study enabled the evaluation of digital procedures, efficacy of data and establishment of practical procedures before, during and after scanning. Istook and Hwang (2001) validate that to obtain accurate physical measurements, a basic knowledge and specific know-how skills are required. For operational parameters, the scanner has auto-registration features and uses safe white light, 32 tiny inbuilt cameras and 16 independent sensors (at 4 angles and 4 heights) with automatic extraction and data capture density of 600,000-1million points in 8-10 seconds. The point accuracy is 1mm, data point grid is 2x2mm, the circumferential accuracy is 3mm with a scan volume of 2.1 (height) x 1.2 (width) x 0.6m (depth). It produces comprehensive sets of measurement and further permits measurement extraction profiles (MEP)s to be customised. These relate to: list of measurements, measurement points, body segments (torso), extra measurements offset from standard landmarks, volume, joints and landmark splicing. It integrates with other existing CAD applications such as Gerber and Lectra and also saves data in various file formats (rbd, bin, ord) Measuring the human body Although the actual scanning took 8 seconds, the process time took approximately 2 minutes per person in the private scanning booth. During scanning, structured light patterns projected onto subjects and a series of images were captured and then converted to thousands of data points which then corresponded to the shape of the scanned subject. These initially yielded a raw image (3D point cloud) and subsequently a more refined body model from which accurate measurements could be extracted, generating a silhouette of the shape and an extensive list of actual body measurements (eg. Figure 1). Figure 1. Scanner output of 3D model with measurement lines and list of measurements extracted Because the measurement list could be customised, it allowed specific profiles for selected garment types and standardised size tables to be automatically generated. The scanning system however required the subjects to adopt a prescribed static posture. Subjects were scanned individually in undergarments similar to their skin complexion or in pastel colours and in non-shinny fabrics. The study found that body hair, skin tone and underwear affected the quality of individual scans. For instance during the procedure, it became apparent that certain types of underwear (eg. thongs) visually split the buttocks and caused inadequacies as the system to considered them as extended legs, consequently presenting shorter torso proportions and generating errors with hip positions (as shown in Figure 2). 61

5 Figure 2. Scanning process illustrating projected structured light on subject to capture shape and size; and the effect of unsuitable underwear (thongs) Various ethical issues had to be considered: subject veto, state of being measured, security of data, space needs such as changing rooms and data integrity. One issue that appears common to both traditional and scanning approaches to body measurement is a key ethical aspect of dealing with the moderately clothed state of a person being measured. Concerns regarding the partially clothed state of the body, physical contact during measurement and personal space issues were all considered by the fact that apart from height and weight, measurement was non-contact and in a private cubicle Managing and analysing scanned data The scanner is attached to a computer with software that allows visualisation and manipulation of 3D images and the measurement data it extracts. Over 140 measurements can be extracted within 8-10 seconds for each individual full scan by default or alternatively, as defined by user. It further captures body dimensions in a reproducible way, allowing visualisation and manipulation of the 3D body model images and extracted measurement data. In the development of size charts and fit testing, key dimensions (often the bust, waist and hip measurements) are significant as these are good garment fit indicators. User-specified measurement extraction profiles could be created from the system and these were developed for the study. Together with other measurements, they allowed key dimensions to be clearly identified visually and analysed as an optional selection from the scans. Since the system allowed rotation of scanned images, various angles of the scanned data could be further examined. Scans from the study were saved on a secure server anonymously, to be accessed by anthropometric data analysts. It was possible to present body measurements for individuals, small batches and large samples as well as produce data on body shape and volume for these. True-to-scale 3D body models with defined measurements were generated and could be printed out. The scanner recorded data in rdb, bin and ord files and is compatible with others such as VMRL, ASCII, Excel and IGES. It is also able to automatically load, save data files and export measurement to CAD systems; therefore exporting 3D data for pattern making, garment draping simulation and 3D body tracking were possible. 3D body scanning systems have integrated and proprietary software. The variety of scanning technology has enabled many possibilities and application in the clothing industry. While scanners allow degrees of automatic measurement extraction of the 3D data using triangulation, only some enable size identification. Simmons & Istook (2001) suggest that although scanning avails vast amounts of 3D data with endless possibilities, the data most likely to be used immediately by the industry are linear measurements. Based on the need to classify the body into categories, Simmons et al. (2004) developed software that would use 3D scans to define body shape automatically Sizing Results from this study found significant differences in general between the current size chart in use (developed in 1999) and the newly developed one by this study. In the main, sizes 6-8 (UK) showed a slight decrease in size possibly explained by the size zero phenomenon (Apeagyei, 2008). However, from (the average) size 12 onwards, it showed an increase in body size, indicating that females who 62

6 International Journal of Digital Content Technology and its Applications Volume 4, Number 7, Octber 2010 generally fall within this size category have become bigger. These results are consistent with findings of the Size UK national survey which reported that the population has increased in size (Table 2). The bust, waist and hips are usually considered as key dimensions and it is imperative that these measurements are adequate for the body sizes they represent otherwise clothes will simply not fit. Table 2. Comparison of UK sample statistics to study sample (key dimensions) (UK) (Study sample) Bust Waist Hips Female Female Bust Waist Hips 1951 statistics statistics statistics statistics (differences) (+4) (+16) (+4) (differences) (+5) (+9) (+4) This study realised that it was not easy to recruit volunteers for body scanning especially within tight time constraints. Both Size UK and Shape GB national surveys offered incentives to encourage participation. This indicates that it is crucial to develop and apply a feasible recruitment strategy for sizing surveys. The essence of providing adequate fit is in the utilisation of current and efficient anthropometric data from surveys. The procedure confirmed that scanning technology has many advantages over traditional manual body measurement procedures: it is quick, efficient, non-contact (using white light technology) and generates efficient data for size charts, pattern generation and fit testing for clothing Benefits of scanned data Body scanners have significant advantages in measuring the human body compared to traditional tape measurement methods. Some present possibilities of measuring a human body without physical contact and eliminate the likelihood of invalid, unreliable and subjective measurement procedures; and vague judgements of posture. The extensive measurements and body models provide a foundation for specified batch and individual pattern construction based on accurate body measurements, thereby eliminating observer error inherent in traditional methods (Simmons & Istook, 2003). In general, the uses of body models generated by 3D body scanning seem unlimited. These include: 3D shape data for avatar creation for online shopping, virtual fit trials (Figure 3), 3D product development, body dimension analysis for target markets, animation and graphics, health and fitness management. For mass customisation, the measurement procedure could be carried out only once but allow future re-use of stored data for new garment orders for instance. At present, it is not possible to exchange the scanned data of one body scanner with other systems, so in retail business terms consumer loyalty to the shop where the scan was undertaken increases. Figure 3. Scanned data morphed into avatar for fit trials 63

7 5. 5. Challenges in application Determining total and accurate and anthropometry for clothing provision is not simple. With traditional, manual methods precise location of body landmarks and how these are handled can be subjective, due to the awkward positioning of certain measurement areas (for example, crotch for inside leg measurement), and there are also issues regarding ethical considerations. 3D body scanning is similarly not without challenges related to landmarking (Simmons & Istook, 2003). Furthermore, some scanners such as used in this study require subjects to wear undergarments for scanning. Currently, capturing a good scan in a posture that allows extracting specific measurement varies among systems. There are image-based problems; where the body sways and is never really still and also the impact of breathing. The study confirms challenges with applications determining subtle landmarks such as the 7 th cervical which is usually found by feel at the back of the neck base, which could be obscured by subjects hair. Shadows cast on areas of the subject s body also tended not record precise data due to light control. The armpit and crotch areas also continue to remain indisputably problematic areas to locate and scan when the prescribed (slightly lifted) position of the arms were not applied. Mismatched undergarment colour/s of the scan subjects can cause the 3D systems to record missing data or present shading in these areas as the study tested; however, this aspect may be limited to white light systems Integration with computer-aided design systems There are many advantages in using electronic-image data such as scanned data, as the body shape is described in precisely defined co-ordinates (x,y,z). Reproducible scanning allows data to be created in digital formats and features such as maximal and minimal measurements easy to numerically locate. Using computer-aided design (CAD) systems, it is now possible to manipulate body sizes and shapes of scanned data for 3D visualisation (eg. Gerber Technology, 2009). This procedure of creating avatars is critical to the provision of assessing adequate fit on screen (Figure 4). Exporting 3D data for garment pattern modification and draping simulation is also possible. Figure 4. Fit testing on Avatars Integrated software is crucial to the process of linking the scan data to CAD patterns. Therefore, compatibility between systems needs to be ensured for the process of automatic generation and manipulation of garment patterns. Systems are usually web enabled and allow direct data transfer from the scanner over local networks or over the web into the existing CAD applications. Most body scanning systems now claim to be able to integrate scan data into current, available apparel CAD systems. Many capture and produce an open format for x, y, z coordinates data and store that as ASCII file, while others have a proprietary file format complemented by an open exchange format. This process allows 2D pattern alteration and subsequently 3D garment generation Mass customisation 64

8 International Journal of Digital Content Technology and its Applications Volume 4, Number 7, Octber 2010 Clothing companies continue to go through tremendous changes to create environments where customer requirements are not only met but exceeded; and where efficiency, productivity, quality, customer satisfaction and competitiveness are critically considered as success factors (Edosomwan, 1996). The increasing turbulence of the global market has altered the nature of the clothing industry. Conventional competitive advantages are no longer sustainable and the emerged business paradigm of mass customisation is being hailed as the solution to problems of fit in the clothing industry. The emergence of 3D body scanning technologies and their integration with CAD systems have presented made-to-measure as a viable marketing tool (Devarajan & Istook, 2004). It has been predicted (Toffler, 1970) that the dominant era of standardisation would come to an end and that mass customisation would overtake standardisation (Davis, 1987), as consumers demand for choice, variety and unique products increase. With passing time, consumers would determine what, when, where and how they want their products (Pine, 1993). Today, consumers demand for more options in shopping of personalised products is on the rise. Body scanning is helping to shift the focus of apparel production from mass production to mass customisation with individualised sizing and design features and made-to-measure facility with competitive prices and faster turnaround times Virtual fit for online shopping Shim & Drake (1990) and Pisut (1998) envisaged the changing pattern of consumers inclination towards purchasing garments online. Anderson-Connell et al. (2002) alerted that 21 st century consumers were more inclined to look beyond traditional retail venues for shopping alternatives and customised products. It stands to reason that the integration of the consumer at the beginning of the value chain aims at satisfying their demand for choice and individuality whilst providing sustainable competitive advantage for retailers. Subsequently online garment sales now not only provide a high level of interactivity but also assure a hassle-free, time-saving pre-purchase visual assessment of garments. Virtual garment try-on technology aims to provide optimal fit and revolutionize the online shopping experience. The main feature of this technology is the capability of virtually testing fit on individuals or retail-specified size models, either through manual input measurements or data acquired from 3D body scanners. In garment sampling and pattern environments, it cuts down on the amount of fit trial sessions undertaken by live models. These lead to reduced costs towards fit trials, increased accuracy of targeted fit and results in reduced sample making (Figures 4 and 5). Figure 4: Virtual fit testing on a pattern development system - Browzwear 65

9 Figure 5. Virtual fit testing on a pattern development system - Optitex With virtual dressing rooms, consumers are also able to virtually try-on selected garments and preview fit and appearance. This is enabled by personalised, animated avatars and enhances the shopping experience by offering fit assessment of garments without the task of travelling for tedious fitting sessions. Further provision of size recommendation functions would help consumers to identify the right size for clothing, with the aim of improving satisfaction and reducing returns due to poor fit. 6. Conclusions Exploring new technologies for managing and improving consumers experiences and satisfaction is important in today s competitive retail environment. Concurring with Pantano & Naccarato (2010), this study underscores the significance of acquisition, organisation and digital management of data (body measurement in this case) by the efficient use of advanced technology in the core production of adequate clothing that fits. A basis for wider implementation of the 3D body scanner to be used for anthropometric procedures and ensuring clothing fit has been implied. In this initial study, an infrastructural (digital and practical) strategy for further research was developed in order to enhance integrity of both data processes involving the determination of measurement and related procedures; integrity of data and their management. Body measurement and the relationship between them change with changing lifestyles, leisure patterns, dietary habits and also growing population diversity. Consequently, the association between garment sizes and body measurements also changes all the time. As a result, regular sizing surveys and measurement series have to be performed to provide a scientific foundation to these and to further provide information on the necessary size segments and their geographical market shares. Generating body measurement data through body scanning for sizing and clothing fit assessment requires ethical deliberation and application; and the need to be scanned when minimally clothed sometimes implies apparent intrusiveness. Guidelines should be given regarding the nature if these including fact that underwear should be everyday underwear without any restriction or distortion of the body. Body scanning technology continues to contribute to theory and better understanding of factors regarding human body measurement, size, shape and body categorisation. For example, identification and development of classification of different body shapes (Simmons et al, 2004); testing of garments on body shapes for target market; validation and revision of a sizing system; virtual expert analysis for sample making or made-to-measure. With production, critical elements of ease, line, balance, set and grain (Ashdown et al., 2004) can further be evaluated. It is anticipated that advancing technology would address errors arising from body movement and shadows, accuracy and also provide consistent shape information. Although scanning captures the size and shape of the body, in a sense this image is unique and historical. Usually a prescribed posture is taken and the subject advised to avoid movement. The posture for the scan is not natural in such circumstances. Manufacturers of body scanning systems recommend varying posture for each particular scanner. An optimal position is the adapted 66

10 International Journal of Digital Content Technology and its Applications Volume 4, Number 7, Octber 2010 anthropometrics position with feet about 30cm apart and arms abducted from body. This presents a need for scanned data to lend itself to utilisation for functional garments where movement and posture become essentially core to measurement. The need for current anthropometric data that generate efficient sizing is vital in garment production since validity and reliability of sizing systems are dependent on this. Because of varying body shapes and size, such data are usually pertinent to associated samples and related market profiles. The creation of niches and the need to target consumers has become a driving force for retailers and manufacturers. Determining garment sizing is important for standardisation, labelling and stock management; as size charts are a useful marketing tool and asset for clothing retailers. As a valuable tool to capture and analyse body size and shape, 3D body scanning serves to shift the focus of clothing provision from mass production to mass customisation. This is due to its critical role in enabling retailers to rapidly collect 3D data on consumers to provide individualised and specified sizing. In conjunction with advanced design, production processes and with the integration of related software, body scanners will therefore allow consumers to benefit from a modern form of custom tailoring. Mass-produced clothing will also be improved as a result of applying body scanning technology. Industry and academic researchers are beginning to use large amounts of anthropometric data captured by body scanners to adjust the sizing systems of ready-to-wear clothing in order to attain better fit. Beyond measurement, analysis of data is determined by the objectives of the measurement. It is evident that data from body scanning could be used for diverse needs in the clothing industry including made-to-measure, customisation, fit trials, developing standardised size for specific targets, creating niches, efficient communication during manufacturing processes, efficient and rapid prototyping and online shopping. Currently, 3D body scanning technology is viewed as the frontier for clothing provision for manufacturers, retailers and consumers. Although its potential seems tremendous, the cost and real benefits will become more apparent with time. 7. References [1] Anderson-Connell, L.J., Ulrich, P.V., A Consumer-driven model for Mass Customization in the Apparel Market, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 6 no.3, pp , [2] Apeagyei, P.R., Significance of Body Image among Female UK Fashion Consumers: the cult of Size Zero, the Skinny Trend, Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, vol.1, no. 1, pp.3-11, [3] Apeagyei, P.R,, Otieno, R. & Tyler, D., Ethical Issues and Methodological Considerations in Researching Body Cathexis for Fashion Products, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 11, no. 3, pp , [4] Ashdown, S.P., Loker, S., Schoenfelder, K. & Lyman-Clarke, L., Using 3D Scans for Fit Analysis, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, vol. 4, no. 1, p12, Summer [5] Beazley, A., Size and Fit: The Development of Size Charts for Clothing, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 3, no. 1, pp.66-84, [6] Beazley, A., Size and Fit: Formulation of Body Measurements Tables and Sizing Systems, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 2, no. 3, pp , [7] Beazley, A., Size and Fit: Procedures in Undertaking a Survey Body Measurements, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, vol. 2, no. 1, pp.55-85, [8] Browzwear, [online], (accessed on 25/09/09). [9] Cyberware, [online], (accessed on 25/09/09). [10] Davis, S., Future Perfect, Addison-Wesley, Reding,1987. [11] Devajaran, P. & Istook, C.L., Validation of Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) for Apparel Software, Journal of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, vol. 4, no 1, p.23, Summer [12] Endosomwan, J.A., Organisational Transformation and Process Re-engineering, St. Lucie Press, Florida, [13] Fan, W.J. & Hunter, L., Clothing Appearance and Fit: Science and Technology, Woodland Publishing Ltd., Cambridge,

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