THE SCIENCE OF PAINTINGS
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1 THE SCIENCE OF PAINTINGS
2 Springer New York Berlin Heidelberg Barcelona Hong Kong London Milan Paris Singapore Tokyo
3 THE SCIENCE OF PAINTINGS W. STANLEY TAFT, JR. JAMES W. MAYER With Contributions from: PETER IAN KUNIHOLM RICHARD NEWMAN DUSAN C. STULIK With 166 Illustrations, 28 in full color Springer
4 W. Stanley Taft, Jr. James W. Mayer Department of Art Center for Solid State Science Cornell University Arizona State University 224 Tjaden Hall P.O. Box Ithaca, NY Tempe, AZ USA USA Contributors Peter Ian Kuniholm Richard Newman Dusan C. Stulik Department of Art History Museum of Fine Arts, The Getty Conservation Cornell University Boston Institute Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Taft, W. Stanley. The science of paintings / Stanley Taft, James W. Mayer ; with contributions by Peter Kuniholm, Richard Newman, and Dusan Stulik. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Painting Appreciation. I. Mayer, James W., II. Newman, Richard, III. Stulik, Dusan, IV. Kuniholm, Peter. V. Title. ND 1143.T dc Printed on acid-free paper Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. Production managed by MaryAnn Brickner; manufacturing supervised by Joe Quatela. Typeset by Matrix Publishing Services, Inc., York, PA. Printed and bound by Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group, York, PA. Printed in the United States of America ISBN Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg SPIN
5 PREFACE The beauty, mystery, joy, and inspired observation of the human spirit that paintings evoke result from a complex of intuitive and cognitive choices made by the artist. An understanding of the genesis of these choices can be as elusive as the resulting imagery, but great paintings seem to initiate in us a curiosity about the ideas, methods, and materials used by their creators. In the twentieth century connoisseurship has been enriched by the application of methods of scientific analysis. The results of these investigations into the physical properties of paintings have shed new light on their authenticity and individual histories as well as on the craft in general. Developments in the fields of physics and chemistry have allowed us to understand still more about how we perceive and interact with paintings. This book is intended for those both inside and outside the field of art who wish to gain insight into the making of paintings. It is directed toward students, teachers, and scientists in engineering, physics, and chemistry as well as those in art, art history, and art conservation. This book grew out of the interdisciplinary undergraduate-level course Art, Isotopes, and Analysis taught at Cornell University by the two authors and supported in lectures and seminars by three of the contributing authors: Dr. Richard Newman, of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Dr. Dusan Stulik, of the Getty Conservation Institute; and Prof. Peter Kuniholm, of Cornell University. Students enrolled in the course represented a broad range of majors and expertise in both art and science (they were not expected to have taken college-level math, physics, or chemistry). The course gave inspiration and structure to the book, which developed from a student text compiled by the authors and other contributors to the course. Much of the information in the Technical Appendices is derived from these lecture notes. v
6 vi PREFACE The book is divided into two sections: (1) nine chapters describing the structure of paintings, the differences in painting media, and the physical properties of painting materials. The nature of light and color and their interaction lead to a view beyond the eye, enhanced by x-radiation, infrared radiation, and nuclear radiation, enabling a deeper penetration into the painting. Analysis of pigments, binders, and support materials as well as the application of dating techniques is also described; (2) a list of references and technical appendices that provide, in detail, the physics and chemistry applicable to the topics covered in the main text. The problem sets and exams used at Cornell University for the Art, Isotopes, and Analysis course, as well as a solution set, are available through the publisher, Springer-Verlag. The authors acknowledge the help and support of our Cornell University colleagues. Professor Donald D. Eddy, of the Department of English, has for many years taught The History of the Book, a course that was the inspiration for Art, Isotopes, and Analysis. Eddy also participated in the organization of Art, Isotopes, and Analysis and presented lectures on printing, binding, paper, and the history of books. Professor Peter I. Kuniholm, of the Department of the History of Art and Archeaology and director of the Aegean Dendrochronology Project, provided lectures and data on dendrochronology. Professor David D. Clark and Howard C. Aderhold, of the Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, and Professor Albert Silverman, from the Department of Physics and Nuclear Science, gave support in the areas of physics and neutroninduced autoradiography. Peter Revesz provided proton-induced x-ray emission (PIXE) analysis of pigments. Debora Mayer, a private art conservator in Bedford, New Hampshire, and formerly at the Winterthur Museum, gave lectures on beta-radiography of works of art on paper and on paper fibers. We are indebted to the students at Cornell who attended our course and those who served as our undergraduate teaching assistants. These teaching assistants attended the course, carried out research projects, and participated as graders, advisors, and assistants. This book is being used at Cornell University as a text in studio painting courses and at Arizona State University as a supplemental text in the course Patterns in Nature, which is intended for teachers of grades K 12.
7 CONTENTS Preface v 1. THE STRUCTURE AND ANALYSIS OF PAINTINGS Introduction What Is a Painting? Choices Examination and Analysis 8 2. PAINT 12 Dusan Stulik, the Getty Conservation Institute 2.0 Paint Pigment Fresco Tempera Encaustic Oil Acrylic 24 vii
8 viii CONTENTS 3. ORGANIC BINDERS 26 Richard Newman, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 3.0 Introduction Carbohydrate-Containing Binders Honey Plant Gums Protein-Containing Materials Animal Glue Egg White and Egg Yolk Casein Oils Waxes Natural Resins THE PAINTER S COLOR AND LIGHT Color, Light, and Space Color Characteristics Afterimages Simultaneous Contrast COLOR AND LIGHT Introduction Light: Photons and Waves The Color of Objects Color: Illumination and Metamerism Additive Color Subtractive Color The Eye and Color Sensation 63
9 Contents ix 6. OPTICS OF PAINT FILMS Introduction Reflection Refraction Scattering of Light Absorption of Light Fluorescence BEYOND THE EYE Introduction Pigment Response in the Infrared Pigment Response to X-Rays: Absorption Pigment Response to X-Rays: Emission Pigment Response to Neutrons Overview DETECTION OF FAKES Introduction A Successful Forger Visual Examination Dating and Pigment Identification Sampling Fake/No Fake OBJECT OF INTERACTION Beyond Analysis 95
10 x CONTENTS APPENDICES 101 A. Photons, Electrons, and the Photoelectric Effect 103 B. Refraction, Reflection, and Dispersion 107 B.1 Index of Refraction 107 B.2 Reflection and Scattering 110 B.3 Dispersion 113 B.4 Varnishes and Refraction 115 B.5 Hiding Power 116 C. Photon Absorption: Visible, Infrared, and X-rays 118 C.1 Mechanism for the Absorption of Light 119 C.2 Infrared Reflectography and Hiding Thickness 125 D. The Chromaticity Diagram 128 E. Periodic Table and Crystal Structure 131 E.1 Electrons, Nuclei, Isotopes and Atomic Number 131 E.2 Periodic Table 133 E.3 Structure of Pigment Crystallites 135 E.4 X-Ray Crystallography 138 F. Electron Energy Levels and X-Ray Emission 141 F.1 Yellows and Pigment Anachronisms 141 F.2 Electron Shells 142 F.3 Electron Binding Energies 145 F.4 X-Ray Emission 147 F.5 X-Ray-, Electron-, and Proton-Induced X-Ray Emission 149 G. Nuclear Reactions and Autoradiography 156 G.1 Nuclear Reactions 156 G.2 Radioactive Decay and Decay Law 158 G.3 Counting Statistics 162 G.4 Neutron Activation Analysis and Autoradiography 163 H. Organic Binders: Analytical Procedures 168 Contributed by Richard Newman H.1 Introduction 168 H.2 Biological Stains 169 H.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry 170 H.4 Chromotography 174
11 Contents xi I. Polarized Light and Optical Microscopy 182 I.1 Polarized Light 182 I.2 Crystal Optics 184 I.3 Polarized Light Microscopy 186 J. Cross-Section Analysis of Sample from Detroit Industry by Diego Rivera 189 Contributed by Leon P. Stodulski and Jerry Jourdan K. Radiocarbon Dating in Art Research 192 Contributed by Dusan Stulik K.1 Introduction 192 K.2 Radiocarbon Dating 193 K.3 Accelerator Mass Spectrometer 196 K.4 Reality of Radiocarbon Dating 198 K.5 Sampling and Sample Contamination 198 K.6 Correction for Isotopic Fractionation 200 K.7 Relations Between Measured and Calendar Age 201 K.8 Medieval Documents on Parchment 203 K.9 Conclusions 204 L. Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dating) of Panel Paintings 206 Contributed by Peter Ian Kuniholm L.1 Method 206 L.2 Limitations 210 L.3 Examples/Case Studies 211 L.4 Summary 214 References 218 Index 229
The Science of Paintings
The Science of Paintings W. STANLEY TAFT, JR. JAMES W. MAYER Springer THE SCIENCE OF PAINTINGS THE SCIENCE OF PAINTINGS W. STANLEY TAFT, JR. JAMES W. MAYER With Contributions from: PETER IAN KUNIHOLM
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