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1 Preface xiii 1 Introduction Concepts Spacecraft Sensors Cost Introduction to Cost Estimating Cost Data Cost Estimating Methodologies The Cost Estimating Relationship Method Insurance Cost Spacecraft Sensors Trade-off Spacecraft Environment Vacuum Neutral Environment Effects Plasma Environment Effects Radiation Environment Effects Contamination Synergistic Effects Space Junk Standards Packaging Interface and Integration Mil-STD 1553 Interface Proximity Issues Integration Testing Performance Testing Thermal Testing Corona-arcing 33

2 viii Electromagnetic Compatibility and Interference Testing Vibration Testing Balancing Mission Simulation Tests Sensors on Orbit Reference Frame Coordinate Transfer in Three-dimensional Space Conic Trajectories Attitude of a Spacecraft 45 Bibliography 49 2 Sensors and Signals Sensor Characteristics Accuracy and Precision Hysteresis Calibration Transfer Function Types of Signals Signal Properties Periodic Signals Representing Signals as Impulses Random Signals Transforming a Signal Analog-to-digital Converter Digital-to-analog Converters ADC and DAC Errors Modulation Data Analysis Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Error Regression Analysis Least Square Method Fourier Analysis 89 Bibliography 93 3 Noise and Filtering in Spacecraft Sensors Internal Noise Thermal Noise Thermal EMF Parameter Noise Dark Current 99

3 ix Shot Noise Excess Noise or 1/f Noise Dielectric Absorption External Noise Clutter Noise Jamming Radio Frequency Coupling Electromagnetic Field Coupling Inductive Coupling Signal-to-Noise Ratio Filter Types Low-pass Filter High-pass Filter Band-pass Filter Digital Filtering Window Design FIR Filter Design Example IIR Filter Design Microwave Filters Optical Filters Digital Image Filtering Kalman Filter State-space Representation Discrete Kalman Filter 130 Bibliography Infrared Sensors Electromagnetic Waves The Electromagnetic Spectrum Maxwell s Equations Wave Equation Solution to Maxwell s Equations Phase and Group Velocity Polarization Radiance Irradiance Interference Diffraction Black body Radiation Interaction with Matter Atmospheric Absorption 159

4 x Reflectance Scattering Optics Refraction/Reflection Concave Mirror Lenses Lens Combinations Aberrations Optical Resolution Scanning Mechanisms Linear Array: Pushbroom Whiskbroom Scanner Parameters Optical Detectors Semiconductors Photoelectric Effect Performance Criteria for Detectors Detector Readout InSb Photodiode HgCdTe Photodiode Thermal Control Landsat 7: ETMþ ASTER ASTER: TIR ASTER: SWIR ASTER: VNIR GOES GOES-I Imager GOES-I/M Sounder DSP and SBIRS 197 Bibliography Passive Microwave Sensors Antenna Vector Potential Infinitesimal Antenna Antenna Radiation Pattern Directivity and Gain Antenna Polarization Waveguides Antenna Types 224

5 xi 5.2 Phased arrays Simple Array of Two Antennas Linear Antenna Array Two-dimensional Antenna Array Beam Steering Radiometers Power-temperature Correspondence for Antennas Remote Temperature Measurement using Radiometry Dicke Radiometer Radiometric Sensitivity Aqua: AMSR-E SeaSat: SMMR Envisat: MWR 251 Bibliography Spacebased Radar Sensors Radar Introduction Overview Frequency Bands Radar Equation The Radar Range Equation Radar Cross Section False Alarm Doppler Radars and the Doppler Effect Resolution RF Power Amplifiers Radar Imaging Altimetry Envisat: RA Synthetic Aperture Radar Envisat: ASAR Interferometric SAR Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) MARSIS 294 Bibliography GPS GPS Overview Concept 299

6 xii 7.3 GPS Signal Structure GPS Data GPS Receiver GPS Signal Processing Code Phase Technique Carrier Phase Method GPS Error Sources GPS Clock GPS Coverage GPS for Atmospheric Measurements Docking/Rendezvous Attitude Determination AMSAT-OSCAR 40 (AO-40) 317 Bibliography 318 Index 319