Understanding GPS/GNSS
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1 Understanding GPS/GNSS Principles and Applications Third Edition
2 Contents Preface to the Third Edition Third Edition Acknowledgments xix xxi CHAPTER 1 Introduction Introduction GNSS Overview Global Positioning System Russian GLONASS System Galileo Satellite System Chinese BeiDou System Regional Systems Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) Augmentations Markets and Applications Organization of the Book 12 References 18 CHAPTER 2 Fundamentals of Satellite Navigation Concept of Ranging Using Time-of-Arrival Measurements Two-Dimensional Position Determination Principle of Position Determination via Satellite-Generated Ranging Codes Reference Coordinate Systems Earth-Centered Inertial (ECI) Coordinate System Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed (ECEF) Coordinate System Local Tangent Plane (Local Level) Coordinate Systems Local Body Frame Coordinate Systems Geodetic (Ellipsoidal) Coordinates 31 vii
3 viii Contents Height Coordinates and the Geoid International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) Fundamentals of Satellite Orbits Orbital Mechanics Constellation Design GNSS Signals Radio Frequency Carrier Modulation Secondary Codes Multiplexing Techniques Signal Models and Characteristics Positioning Determination Using Ranging Codes Determining Satellite-to-User Range Calculation of User Position Obtaining User Velocity Frequency Sources, Time, and GNSS Frequency Sources Time and GNSS 85 References 86 CHAPTER 3 Global Positioning System Overview Space Segment Overview Control Segment Overview User Segment Overview Space Segment Description GPS Satellite Constellation Description Constellation Design Guidelines Space Segment Phased Development Control Segment Description OCS Current Configuration OCS Transition OCS Planned Upgrades User Segment GNSS Receiver Characteristics GPS Geodesy and Time Scale Geodesy Time Systems Services SPS Performance Standard PPS Performance Standard GPS Signals Legacy Signals Modernized Signals Civil Navigation (CNAV) and CNAV-2 Navigation Data 175
4 Contents ix 3.8 GPS Ephemeris Parameters and Satellite Position Computation Legacy Ephemeris Parameters CNAV and CNAV-2 Ephemeris Parameters 183 References 185 CHAPTER 4 GLONASS Introduction Space Segment Constellation Spacecraft Ground Segment System Control Center (SCC) Central Synchronizer (CS) Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TT&C) Laser Ranging Stations (SLR) GLONASS User Equipment Geodesy and Time Systems Geodetic Reference System GLONASS Time Navigation Services Navigation Signals FDMA Navigation Signals Frequencies Modulation Code Properties GLONASS P-Code Navigation Message C/A Navigation Message P-Code Navigation Message CDMA Navigation Signals 210 Acknowledgments 213 References 214 CHAPTER 5 Galileo Program Overview and Objectives Galileo Implementation Galileo Services Galileo Open Service Public Regulated Service Commercial Service Search and Rescue Service Safety of Life System Overview 221
5 x Contents Ground Mission Segment Ground Control Segment Space Segment Launchers Galileo Signal Characteristics Galileo Spreading Codes and Sequences Navigation Message Structure Forward Error Correction Coding and Block Interleaving Interoperability Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame Time Reference Frame Galileo Search and Rescue Mission SAR/Galileo Service Description European SAR/Galileo Coverage and MEOSAR Context Overall SAR/Galileo System Architecture SAR Frequency Plan Galileo System Performance Timing Performance Ranging Performance Positioning Performance Final Operation Capability Expected Performances System Deployment Completion up to FOC Galileo Evolution Beyond FOC 269 References 269 CHAPTER 6 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) Overview Introduction to BDS BDS Evolution BDS Characteristics BDS Space Segment BDS Constellation BDS Satellites BDS Control Segment Configuration of the BDS Control Segment Operation of the BDS Control Segment Geodesy and Time Systems BDS Coordinate System BDS Time System The BDS Services BDS Service Types BDS RDSS Service BDS RNSS Service BDS SBAS Service 296
6 Contents xi 6.6 BDS Signals RDSS Signals RNSS Signals of the BDS Regional System RNSS Signals of the BDS Global System 306 References 310 CHAPTER 7 Regional SATNAV Systems Quasi-Zenith Satellite System Overview Space Segment Control Segment Geodesy and Time Systems Services Signals Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) Overview Space Segment NavIC Control Segment Geodesy and Time Systems Navigation Services Signals Applications and NavIC User Equipment 334 References 336 CHAPTER 8 GNSS Receivers Overview Antenna Elements and Electronics Front End Digital Memory (Buffer and Multiplexer) and Digital Receiver Channels Receiver Control and Processing and Navigation Control and Processing Reference Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizer User and/or External Interfaces Alternate Receiver Control Interface Power Supply Summary Antennas Desired Attributes Antenna Designs Axial Ratio VSWR Antenna Noise 352
7 xii Contents Passive Antenna Active Antenna Smart Antenna Military Antennas Front End Functional Description Gain Downconversion Scheme Output to ADC ADC, Digital Gain Control, and Analog Frequency Synthesizer Functions ADC Implementation Loss and a Design Example ADC Sampling Rate and Antialiasing ADC Undersampling Noise Figure Dynamic Range, Situational Awareness, and Effects on Noise Figure Compatibility with GLONASS FDMA Signals Digital Channels Fast Functions Slow Functions Search Functions Acquisition Single Trial Detector Tong Search Detector M of N Search Detector Combined Tong and M of N Search Detectors FFT-Based Techniques Direct Acquisition of GPS Military Signals Vernier Doppler and Peak Code Search Carrier Tracking Carrier Loop Discriminator Code Tracking Code Loop Discriminators BPSK-R Signals BOC Signals GPS P(Y)-Code Codeless/Semicodeless Processing Loop Filters PLL Filter Design FLL Filter Design FLL-Assisted PLL Filter Design DLL Filter Design Stability Measurement Errors and Tracking Thresholds PLL Tracking Loop Measurement Errors PLL Thermal Noise 475
8 Contents xiii Vibration-Induced Oscillator Phase Noise Allan Deviation Oscillator Phase Noise Dynamic Stress Error Reference Oscillator Acceleration Stress Error Total PLL Tracking Loop Measurement Errors and Thresholds FLL Tracking Loop Measurement Errors Code-Tracking Loop Measurement Errors BOC Code Tracking Loop Measurement Errors Formation of Pseudorange, Delta Pseudorange, and Integrated Doppler Pseudorange Delta Pseudorange Integrated Doppler Carrier Smoothing of Pseudorange Sequence of Initial Receiver Operations Data Demodulation Legacy GPS Signal Data Demodulation Other GNSS Signal Data Demodulation Data Bit Error Rate Comparison Special Baseband Functions Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio Estimation Lock Detectors Cycle Slip Editing 536 References 543 CHAPTER 9 GNSS Disruptions Overview Interference Types and Sources Effects Interference Mitigation Ionospheric Scintillation Underlying Physics Amplitude Fading and Phase Perturbations Receiver Impacts Mitigation Signal Blockage Vegetation Terrain Man-Made Structures Multipath Multipath Characteristics and Models Effects of Multipath on Receiver Performance Multipath Mitigation 612 References 614
9 xiv Contents CHAPTER 10 GNSS Errors Introduction Measurement Errors Satellite Clock Error Ephemeris Error Relativistic Effects Atmospheric Effects Receiver Noise and Resolution Multipath and Shadowing Effects Hardware Bias Errors Pseudorange Error Budgets 656 References 658 CHAPTER 11 Performance of Stand-Alone GNSS Introduction Position, Velocity, and Time Estimation Concepts Satellite Geometry and Dilution of Precision in GNSS DOP Characteristics of GNSS Constellations Accuracy Metrics Weighted Least Squares Additional State Variables Kalman Filtering GNSS Availability Predicted GPS Availability Using the Nominal 24-Satellite GPS Constellation Effects of Satellite Outages on GPS Availability GNSS Integrity Discussion of Criticality Sources of Integrity Anomalies Integrity Enhancement Techniques Continuity GPS GLONASS Galileo BeiDou 706 References 706 CHAPTER 12 Differential GNSS and Precise Point Positioning Introduction Code-Based DGNSS Local-Area DGNSS 711
10 Contents xv Regional-Area DGNSS Wide-Area DGNSS Carrier-Based DGNSS Precise Baseline Determination in Real Time Static Application Airborne Application Attitude Determination Precise Point Positioning Conventional PPP PPP with Ambiguity Resolution RTCM SC-104 Message Formats Version Version DGNSS and PPP Examples Code-Based DGNSS Carrier-Based PPP 782 References 784 CHAPTER 13 Integration of GNSS with Other Sensors and Network Assistance Overview GNSS/Inertial Integration GNSS Receiver Performance Issues Review of Inertial Navigation Systems The Kalman Filter as System Integrator GNSSI Integration Methods Typical GPS/INS Kalman Filter Design Kalman Filter Implementation Considerations Integration with Controlled Reception Pattern Antenna Inertial Aiding of the Tracking Loops Sensor Integration in Land Vehicle Systems Introduction Land Vehicle Augmentation Sensors Land Vehicle Sensor Integration A-GNSS: Network Based Acquisition and Location Assistance History of Assisted GNSS Emergency Response System Requirements and Guidelines The Impact of Assistance Data on Acquisition Time GNSS Receiver Integration in Wireless Devices Sources of Network Assistance Hybrid Positioning in Mobile Devices Introduction Mobile Device Augmentation Sensors Mobile Device Sensor Integration 906
11 xvi Contents CHAPTER 14 References 908 GNSS Markets and Applications GNSS: A Complex Market Based on Enabling Technologies Introduction Defining the Market Challenges Predicting the GNSS Market Changes in the Market over Time Market Scope and Segmentation Dependence on Policies Unique Aspects of GNSS Market Sales Forecasting Market Limitations, Competitive Systems and Policy Civil Applications of GNSS Location-Based Services Road GNSS in Surveying, Mapping, and Geographical Information Systems Agriculture Maritime Aviation Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) and Drones Rail Timing and Synchronization Space Applications GNSS Indoor Challenges Government and Military Applications Military User Equipment: Aviation, Shipboard, and Land Autonomous Receivers: Smart Weapons Conclusions 938 References 939 APPENDIX A Least Squares and Weighted Least Squares Estimates 941 Reference 942 APPENDIX B Stability Measures for Frequency Sources 943 B.1 Introduction 943 B.2 Frequency Standard Stability 943 B.3 Measures of Stability 944 B.3.1 Allan Variance 944 B.3.2 Hadamard Variance 945 References 946
12 Contents xvii APPENDIX C Free-Space Propagation Loss 947 C.1 Introduction 947 C.2 Free-Space Propagation Loss 947 C.3 Conversion Between Power Spectral Densities and Power Flux Densities 951 References 951 About the Authors 953 Index 961
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