Aristotle s Definition of Tragedy. The Tragic Hero

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1 Aristotle s Definition of Tragedy Imitation of a single, unified action that is serious, complete, probable, and of a certain magnitude. It concerns the fall of a man whose character is good, believable, and consistent. The fall is caused in part by some error or frailty in the protagonist, not by a vice or depravity. The language is embellished with each kind of artistic ornament. The tragedy is presented in the form of action, not narrative. It arouses in the audience the emotions of pity and terror resulting in a catharsis of these emotions. The Tragic Hero Believes in his own freedom. He makes choices when faced with dilemmas, and he has faith and courage to accept the outcomes of his choices. A supreme pride (hubris) seems almost a reflection of arrogance, a superiority to man, but it gives the hero a unique power and dignity. Capacity for suffering he suffers because he believes in what he is doing. Feels both guilt and guiltlessness at the same time. Justifies his actions, but is not convinced they are just. No fear of death. A sense of commitment committed to the course of his action. There is an inevitability that moves him to a resolution. Vigorous protest objects with vehemence, logic, and pain against the situation he finds himself in. Does not accept fate meekly. Cries out against the gods and his own weakness. Transfiguration suffering refines him. He learns from his agony, and his awareness lies in his deeper understanding of the human condition and man s pace in the universe. Impact audience and other characters also learn about the condition of man.

2 Oedipus and the Sphinx Oedipus s wanderings brought him to the gates of Thebes. Guarding the gates was a terrible monster with the body of a lion and the head and torso of a woman. She allowed no one to enter or leave the city without answering the riddle that she posed. If the traveler could not answer correctly, she would kill and devour him. As no one had yet come up with the right answer, the sphinx was well-fed, and the city of Thebes was effectively cut off from all trade and all contact with the world outside the city walls. When Oedipus reached the gates of the city, the creature posed her riddle: What walks on four legs in the morning, two legs at noon, and three legs in the evening? Oedipus solved the riddle, answering that man crawls on all fours in infancy, walks upright on two legs in adulthood, and uses a cane as a third leg in old age. The sphinx was so frustrated that Oedipus had answered her riddle that she threw herself from the city walls, and died there on the road in front of the city that she had terrorized for so long. The Thebans were immensely grateful to Oedipus for having rid them of the monstrous sphinx. Their king, Laius, had been gone for over a year, and by now they had figured out that he was never coming back. In fact, they assumed he had been murdered by robbers during his travels, and that the sphinx's sudden appearance at their gates was actually a sign that their king had died. They were right, in a way, for the sphinx was sent by the gods, who were appalled that Oedipus had slain his own father. So closely bound was a king to his land, that Laius's unavenged murder had brought a curse down upon Thebes--and the sphinx was a manifestation of that curse. In their gratitude the Thebans made Oedipus their new king, and gave him their widowed queen Jocasta as his wife. For many years the two were happy together, and for awhile Thebes prospered as well. But the curse that had first manifested in the form of the sphinx had not been lifted, for the king's death had still not been avenged. And though Oedipus did not know it, and had not intended it, he was guilty of two terrible crimes-- patricide and incest. It was inevitable that his guilt would eventually bring harm to Thebes.

3 PARODOS OEDIPUS REX Strophe 1 CHORUS: What is God singing in his profound Delphi of gold and shadow? What oracle for Thebes, the sunwhipped city? Fear unjoints me, the roots of my heart tremble. Now I remember, O Healer, your power, and wonder: Will you send doom like a sudden cloud, or weave it Like nightfall of the past? Speak, speak to us, issue of holy sound: Dearest to our expectancy: be tender! Antistrophe 1 Let me pray to Athene, the immortal daughter of Zeus, And to Artemis her sister Who keeps her famous throne in the market ring, And to Apollo, bowman at the far butts of heaven- O gods, descend! Like three streams leap against The fires of our grief, the fires of darkness; Be swift to bring us rest! As in the old time from the brilliant house Of air you stepped to save us, come again! Strophe 2 Now our afflictions have no end, Now all our stricken host lies down And no man fights off death with his mind; The noble plowland bears no grain, And groaning mothers can not bear- See, how our lives like birds take wing, Like sparks that fly when a fire soars, To the shore of the god of evening.

4 Antistrophe 2 The plague burns on, it is pitiless, Though pallid children laden with death Lie unwept in the stony ways, And old gray women by every path Flock to the strand about the altars There to strike their breasts and cry Worship of Phoibos in wailing prayers: Be kind, God's golden child! Strophe 3 There are no swords in this attack by fire, No shields, but we are ringed with cries. Send the besieger plunging from our homes Into the vast sea-room of the Atlantic Or into the waves that foam eastward of Thrace For the day ravages what the night spares Destroy our enemy, lord of the thunder! Let him be riven by lightning from heaven! Antistrophe 3 Phoibos Apollo, stretch the sun's bowstring, That golden cord, until it sing for us, Flashing arrows in heaven! Artemis, Huntress, Race with flaring lights upon our mountains! O scarlet god, O golden-banded brow, O Theban Bacchos in a storm of Maenads, Enter Oedipus, center. Whirl upon Death, that all the Undying hate! Come with blinding torches, come in joy!

5 The Hero s Journey a Refresher The Hero of legend can be viewed as being reliant upon an archetype, or a model upon which similar things are patterned can be patterned intentionally (Star Wars, The Matrix) or unintentionally (LOTR, Greek mythology) The Hero s Journey is made up of a series of eight steps, a path that is followed throughout the story It is not crucial that these steps all be included in the story, nor that they occur in this exact sequence I. SEPARATION FROM THE KNOWN A. The Call invites the Hero into the adventure offers the Hero the opportunity to face the unknown and gain something of physical or spiritual value The Hero may choose willingly to undertake the quest, or may be dragged into it unwillingly May be initiated by the appearance of a herald signals that something important will soon happen B. The Threshold "jumping off point" for the adventure It is the gateway between the known and the unknown, a world filled with challenges and dangers. the Hero may meet several different types of characters who may either offer to help or try to thwart the Hero A single character can take on different functions at different points in the story. threshold guardians people, beings, or situations which block the Hero s passage. can protect the Hero by keeping him or her from taking journeys for which he or she is unready or unprepared helpers provide assistance or direction to the Hero mentor sage giver of guidance, advice tempters try to pull the Hero away from his or her path shapeshifter helper, tempter or both. May literally change shape/form or may merely change personalities or status or alliances. II. III. INITIATION AND TRANSFORMATION A. The Challenges the Hero begins the journey into the unknown can be outward into a physical unknown or inward to a psychological unknown early challenges are relatively easy but become more difficult as journey progresses challenges often strike the Hero s greatest weaknesses B. Into the Abyss the journey s greatest challenge, faced alone by the Hero "slay the dragon this conflict often with the story s shadow figure, the story s antagonist. B. Transformation the Hero conquers the Abyss and transformation becomes complete. final step is a moment of death and rebirth a part of the Hero dies so that a new part can be born C. Revelation sudden, dramatic change in the way the Hero thinks or views life usually occurs during or after the Abyss D. Atonement the Hero s acceptance of his or her new self and place in the world THE RETURN A. Return the return to everyday life, the final stage of the journey essence of the Hero s return is to begin contributing to society Saving or renewing society, teaching and enlightening Message may be rejected by society

6 Greek Drama Note Outline III. Origin a. Origin in religious ceremony b. Greek drama grew out of worship of Dionysus c. Dionysiac dithyramb was a choral dance with mime d. Thespis added first actor to act out adventures of Dionysus e. City Dionysia Festival instituted in Athens in 534 BC i. Competition for tragedy writers ii. Drama brought under state control and patronage f. Aeschylus added second actor g. Sophocles added third actor h. Golden Age of Greece: BC i. Greek drama reached its height ii. Great playwrights 1. Aeschylus 2. Sophocles 3. Euripides II. Influence of Religion on Greek Drama a. Drama an attempt to beautify and enrich religion i. Poetry, music, dancing, acting b. Altar of Dionysus stood in center of theater c. Plays only performed at two religious festivals in March and January i. Elaborate procession with statue of god on opening day 1. festival mixed religious feeling with love of fun and spectacle ii. all of Athens attended iii. each playwright presented a series of three tragedies followed by a satyr-play 1. Only extant series is The Oresteia of Aeschylus 2. plots taken from familiar stories and myths 3. audience interested in variation of story 4. tried to invest old stories with new meanings I. Music and Dancing a. Greek drama is a combination of poetic drama, music, and dancing i. Closest modern parallel is opera b. Some passages spoken, but others sung, including choral odes and intensely lyrical passages c. Dancing used bodily motion to interpret the emotions of the words and music i. This is a lost art closest modern parallel is ballet IV. The Chorus a. Goes back to Dionysiac dithyramb b. Twelve to fifteen members i. Leader is Coryphaeus or Choragos 1. Speaks for chorus during spoken dialogue ii. Represented a group of old women or men c. Chorus faced actors during play, the audience during intervening choral odes i. Chanted the choral odes in unison ii. Moved toward audience in strophe, away from audience in antistrophe d. Function of Chorus i. Transition between acts ii. Remind of what has transpired in past iii. Foretell future iv. Reflect public opinion v. Serve as a kind of proxy for audience vi. Give author an opportunity to comment vii. Provide occasion for great lyric poetry viii. Take part in action of play V. The Greek Theater a. Few props or mechanical devices b. Large open-air amphitheaters c. Semicircular with seating built into side of hill d. Theater in Athens could seat 17,000 e. Stage was orchestra-level circular place f. Raised stage and skene (prop house) added later g. Eventually a more elaborate building with balcony j. Later plays had mechanical devices to fly in the gods to save the day (deus ex machine) k. Usual scene is of an open space in front of a palace or temple l. Messengers used to inform audience of events happening offstage VI. The Audience a. Since plays were only performed twice a year, the audience was almost the entire male population of city b. Plays went on all day with no intermission c. Audience was noisy and intelligent iii. Would stop bad plays iv. Hissed, groaned, stamped, threw things i. Ear of audience so astute, they could detect small errors such as the stressing of a wrong syllable

7 VII. VIII. IX. The Actors XIII. a. Used masks to play a variety of parts ix. Contained a kind of built-in megaphone b. Effective rhetorical delivery of lines of utmost importance not realism of dialogue c. Dialogue was highly artificial d. Method of delivering lines more formal speeches often resemble formal orations e. Language of Greek drama still possesses power and beauty dramatists aimed at lofty beauty f. Female parts played by boys usually bold women g. Characters have more typical than individual traits Conventions a. Eccyclema portable stage for displaying bodies b. No representation of violence on stage c. Oncoming actor always addressed the Chorus first d. Chorus remains onstage throughout play The Unities a. Time (one day) b. Place (one setting) c. Action (one central plot) d. Presence of chorus and absence of curtain almost forced the Unities e. Accounts for directness, simplicity, and symmetry of Greek tragedy. i. Made for unity of plot and mood X. Aeschylus a BC b. Wrote 90 plays and won first prize times c. Added second actor to Greek stage d. Wrote The Oresteia trilogy i. Includes Agamemnon, The Libation, and The Furies e. Also wrote Prometheus Bound, and The Seven Against Thebes XI. XII. Sophocles b BC c. Life coincided with Age of Pericles (Golden Age) d. Added third actor to Greek stage e. Triumphed over Aeschylus in 468 BC while still in his twenties i. Won 18 or 20 competitions, never lower than second place f. Plays don t fall into trilogies g. Plays include Antigone, Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Ajax, and Electra h. Plays are Greek tragedy at its best proportioned, symmetrical, and restrained i. Characters less heroic and more human, but still preserve a lofty dignity Euripides a BC b. Growing tendency towards skeptical thinking c. Plays are more melodramatic and romantic d. Severely criticized for excessive use of deus ex machina endings e. Characters display emotion and violence seems more modern f. Won first prize five times g. Had posthumous popularity 18 of his plays survive h. Best plays include Medea, Hippolytus, Ihigenia Among the Tauri, Iphigenia at Aulis, and Electra. The Cyclops is the only extant satyr-play. Greek Comedy a. Aristophanes best known comedy writer i. wrote The Birds, The Lysistrata, and The Frogs b. represented the less serious side of the worship of Dionysus c. had three parts i. The parabasis - coming forward of the chorus ii. A loose string of farcical scenes iii. A comus (conclusion or revel) d. Plots thin e. Chorus often consisted of frogs, birds, wasps, etc. f. Curious mixture of dramatic, lyric, and satiric elements g. Came to be recognized later than tragedy