Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation

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2 Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation The Harappan Civilisation is one of the most ancient civilisations in the world. Archaeological materials are the only sources of this civilisation. The civilisation had developed on the banks of River Indus and its tributaries. Why is the civilisation which developed on the banks of River Indus and its tributaries known as the Harappan Civilisation? The Indus Valley Civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation because it was in the city of Harappa that the civilisation was first discovered. It was a Bronze Age civilisation extending from present-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. The Indus Valley Civilisation is dated between c and 1900 BCE. This period is also known as the Mature Harappan Culture. Map showing some mature Harappan sites Stage of Civilisation Early Harappan Mature Harappan Later Harappan Time Period BCE BCE BCE A unique feature of the civilisation was the development of urban centres in as early as 2600 BCE. Two main cities of the civilisation were Harappa and Mohenjodaro. 2

3 Discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) 3

4 John Marshall His period as the Director General of the ASI marked a major change in Indian archaeology. He was the first professional archaeologist to work in India. He used his experience of working in Greece and Crete. However, He excavated along regular horizontal units ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Thus, all artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers. This resulted in the loss of valuable information. John Marshall Mohenjodaro: A Planned Urban Centre Cities of IVC were well-planned. Main features of Mohenjodaro: The settlement was divided into two sections: Citadel (built on a higher elevation) and Lower Town. The Citadel was walled and separated from the Lower Town. The Lower Town was also walled. Bricks used in building the city s houses were of standardised ratio. Roads in the cities were laid out along a grid pattern intersecting each other at right angles. Drainage System The planned drainage system was one of the most distinctive features of the Harappan cities. Historians believe that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses were built along them. Some features of the drainage system: Every house was connected to the street drain. House drains emptied themselves into the main drain. The drainage system and drains were covered with bricks or stones. They were provided with inspection holes at regular intervals for cleaning. House drains first emptied into sumps into which solid matter settled and wastewater flowed into the street drains. A close look at the drainage pattern in the IVC Domestic Architecture Citadel It is on the citadel that structures used for special public purposes were built. The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is one such structure. It was a large rectangular tank surrounded by corridors on all four sides. There were two flights of stairs on opposite sides. 4

5 Leakage of water from the tanks was probably prevented by making a mortar of gypsum. There were rooms on three sides and water from the tank flowed into a huge drain. The Lower Town Great Bath at Mohenjodaro. It is believed that it was used for some kind of ritual bath. There were residential buildings in the Lower Town. Subsistence Strategies The Harappans consumed various plant and animal products including fish. They consumed grains such as wheat, lentils, chickpea, sesame and millets. Charred particles of these grains have been found at various Harappan sites. Bones of animals such as boar, deer and alligator have been found. Bones of fish and fowl have also been found. 5

6 Agricultural Technologies What We Know Harappans practised agriculture Oxen were used for ploughing land What We Do Not Know Actual agricultural practices Tools used for cultivating fields stone tools or metal tools? Some Facts: Many Harappan sites are located in semi-arid regions, so fields were perhaps irrigated. Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai in Afghanistan but not in Punjab and Sind. Water from wells may have been used for cultivating lands. Water reservoirs at Dholvira may have been used to store water for agriculture. Social Differences Archaeologists have used strategies to find out if social differences existed in society. They have tried to find this out by studying their burial practices and materials used by them. The dead were buried in pits. Differences in the way of making burial pits were probably an indication of social differences existing in society. Some graves containing pottery and ornaments have been discovered. This indicates the Harappan belief in the afterlife. Archaeologists also studied various luxurious items to identify social differences. Items such as faience pots which were difficult to make were probably expensive. Discovery of such items shows that there were social and economic differences which existed in society. Craft Production Craft production in IVC included bead-making, metal working, shell cutting, seal-making and weight-making. Stones such as carnelian, quartz and steatite and metals such as copper, bronze and gold were used to make beads. Techniques Used in Making Beads and Jewellery Harappan beads were made of two or more stones or with gold caps. Steatite (soft stone) was also used in making beads. Red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing yellowish raw material at various stages of production. Jewellery making included grinding, polishing and drilling. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholvira. This shows that they were centres of craft production. Coastal settlements at Nageshwar and Balakot were near the coasts and thus specialised in making shell objects. Beads and ornaments discovered from various Harappan sites 6

7 How did archaeologists identify centres of craft production? By finding centres which had raw materials like stones nodules, copper ores and tools By discovering discarded waste materials Strategies for Procuring Raw Materials Various ways used by the Harappans to procure raw materials: They established settlements in the coastal areas such as Balakot and Nageshwar where shells were available. Other such sites were Shortughai (lapis lazuli) Lothal (carnelian), south Rajasthan and north Gujarat (steatite). The Harappans sent expeditions to various places where raw materials were available. So, expeditions were sent to Khetri region in Rajasthan for gold. Contacts with Distant Lands The Harappans had trade relations with distant countries. This can be established by the facts that Copper was probably brought from Oman. This is indicated by the fact that both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel suggesting a common origin. A large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites. The Harappans may have exchanged the contents of these vessels with copper. The Mesopotamian texts refer to the Harappan land as Meluhha the land of sea farers. It is likely that communication of the Harappans with Oman or Mesopotamia was by sea. Harappan seals, weights and measures have been found at Oman and Mesopotamia. Harappan Seals, Scripts and Weights Seals Seals and sealings were used for facilitating long-distance communication. When a bag of goods was transported, its mouth was tied with a rope and wet clay with one or more seals being pressed to leave an impression. This ensured that the bag has not been meddled with. A Harappan seal with an impression 7

8 Script A Harappa script Short Not alphabetical Pictorial (too many signs) Written from right to left Scripts have been found on seals, copper tools, jewellery and rims of jars Has not been deciphered Weights A precise system of weights existed. Weights were made of stone chert and were usually cubical. While lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16), higher denominations followed the decimal system. Ancient Authority It is believed that complex decisions were taken and implemented in the Harappan society. This is proved by the following arguments: There is uniformity in the production of bricks, pottery, weights and seals. Although the above materials were produced at different places, they were of uniform ration throughout the region, from Jammu and Kashmir to Gujarat. The question is who organised these activities? Was there a central authority who decided all important issues? We have no answers to these questions. Palaces and Kings Historians have not been able to find concrete evidences to prove that there was a king or central authority. A large building has been found at Mohenjodaro but no palace-like spectacular features have found to be associated with it. A stone statue has been found from IVC. It has been named Priest King. It is perhaps because archaeologists were aware of such existences of the Priest King in Mesopotamia. Some archaeologists believe that there were no rulers in the Harappan Civilisation and everyone enjoyed equal The Priest King found in the IVC status. Others believe that there were various rulers in different cities and no single ruler. Another section of historians are of an opinion that there was one 8

9 single ruler in IVC. It is because bricks and weights used in all Harappan cities were of the same standardised ratio. The last theory as of now appears to be most reasonable. Religious Beliefs There are no definite evidences which can help us to sketch the religious beliefs of the people in IVC. Historians discovered the seal Proto Shiva from the Harappan period. They tried to find evidences if the Harappans worshipped any gods or goddesses or had any religious beliefs. The Rigveda, the earliest religious text, mentions a god named Rudra who is later known by the name of Shiva. However, Rudra does not appear as a pashupati or as a yogi. Seal of Proto Shiva Thus, historians are confused as to what the seal of Proto Shiva depicts. The End of the Civilisation We do not know how and why did the civilisation came to an end. Various theories have been forwarded by historians depicting the downfall of the civilisation. Deforestation Excessive floods Climatic changes Reasons leading to the end of the civilisation Shifting or drying up of rivers It appears that towards the end of the civilisation, a strong unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end. This is because the uniformity in the ratio of seals, pottery, bricks and weights began to disappear. The local use of weights became common and cities began to be abandoned. 9

10 Timeline of IVC 10