The creation of physical phenomena and of technical artefacts

Transcription

1 The creation of physical phenomena and of technical artefacts Peter Kroes Section of Philosophy Dept. Technology, Policy and Management 1

2 Physical phenomena/objects Lightning Electron interference Superconductivity Galactic system All of these phenomena/objects belong to the natural (physical)world 2

3 Technical objects/artefacts Screws Toothbrushes Electric cars Airplanes All these objects belong to the artificial world 3

4 A great divide: The natural versus the artificial Definition of the natural-artificial distinction: Natural objects/phenomena Objects/phenomena not created by human beings Artificial objects/phenomena Objects/phenomena intentionally created by human beings Technical artefacts are physical constructions with a technical function 4

5 The natural versus the artificial: Aristotle s conception of nature 384 BC 322 BC Things that exist by nature and those that exist by other causes (Physica, book II, 192b). Things that exist by nature, natural things, are characterised by the fact that they carry within themselves their principle of change. Nature, according to Aristotle, is a source or cause of being moved and of being at rest within a thing, which it has by virtue of being that thing. 5

6 Practical issues about the natural-artificial distinction Patent practice: Only patents on (new, useful and non-obvious) inventions not on natural phenomena/objects Science, Vol. 300 (2003) 6

7 Conceptual issues about the natural-artificial distinction Conceptual issues: Obscure and fateful divide: it calls forth deep and dark interests. It strikes in us chords of how we conceive of our place and the place of creatures like ourselves (Dipert, 1993) Scientist intentionally create all kinds of physical phenomena/objects in their laboratories According to the above definition this implies that these phenomena/objects are not natural but artificial! 7

8 Natural or artificial? 1. Lightning 2. Electron interference 3. Superconductivity 4. Galactic system 8

9 More examples of the creation of physical phenomena/objects LHC- CERN: proof the existence of Higgs bosons by making/creating and observing one. Super-heavy atoms have all been created during the latter half of the 20th century and are continually being created during the 21st century as technology advances. 9

10 Ian Hacking: Representing and Intervening (1983) 10

11 Hacking thesis: Experimental phenomena are created Phenomena are not discovered but created But, we tend to feel, the phenomena revealed in the laboratory are part of God s handiwork, waiting to be discovered p. 225 But the phenomena of physics the Faraday effect, the Hall effect, the Josephson effect are the keys that unlock the universe. People made the keys and perhaps the locks in which they turn. p

12 Traditional view on nature in physical experiments A typical experiment in physics: With the help of technology the physical object to be studied and the artificial theatre in which it is to be studied are created, but (The behaviour of) the object studied is natural: in accordance with natural/physical laws The scientist creates the conditions for observing physical/natural phenomena 12

13 Problems What, if any, is the difference between a physicist creating a physical phenomenon/object and an engineer creating a technical artefact? What, if any, are the differences between physical objects and technical artefacts? What about the distinction between the natural and the artificial world? My tentative answer: It s all about design. 13

14 The creation of physical objects 14

15 Creation of Americium atoms Natural and synthetic/artificial elements: Ninety-two chemical elements occur naturally on Earth. The others have been made synthetically or artificially in a laboratory. Synthetic elements are usually produced in particle accelerators ( ) or nuclear reactors ( ). Synthetic/artificial here means made or created by human beings 15

16 Design and the creation of physical objects This kind of creation involves the creation of the conditions for the object to come into existence Design and making of the necessary laboratory equipment The object created itself is not designed Knowledge about the object created: Knowledge necessary for the identification of the physical object created One success-criterion: create the appropriate conditions 16

17 The creation of technical artefacts 17

18 The creation of a bicycle Creation: process from an idea of the bicycle to the corresponding physical construction Engineering design practice: Function of the object Functional requirements List of specifications Blue print of the object 18

19 Design and the creation of technical artefacts Creation of an instance of a technical artefact kind (Thomasson): An object X is an instance of the technical artefact kind K iff X is the result of a successful execution of a correct design of a K. Object created is based on/the embodiment of a human design Two success criteria: 1. Successful/correct design 2. Successful execution of the design 19

20 Design and the creation of technical artefacts The creation of a technical artefact without the knowledge of its design is not possible The object created is itself designed 20

21 Creation process: main differences Physical objects Limited knowledge of the object created The object created is itself not designed Creation in a weak sense Technical artefacts Knowledge of the design of the object created The object created is based on/the embodiment of a design Creation in a strong sense 21

22 Design and the objects created 22

23 Americium (95) Human-made object = artificial Object created in a weak sense No technical function by itself Not based on a design Not a technical artefact Part of Nature Bicycle Human-made object = artificial Object created in a strong sense Technical function by itself Based on a design Technical artefact Not part of Nature 23

24 Natural versus artefactual kinds Americium atoms are not based on a design They are instances of a natural kind (of the element Americium) Bicycles are based on a design They are instances of an artefactual kind and therefore not part of nature 24

25 Two distinctions Natural objects versus artificial objects: Not made by humans/made by humans A genetic distinction: difference in origin Natural kinds versus artefactual kinds Being based on a design or not A difference in kind of properties: with or without design (intentional) features 25

26 Natural versus artificial instances of natural and artefactual kinds Natural instances of natural kinds spontaneously created Americium atom Artificial instances of natural kinds Americium atom created by humans Artificial instances of artefactual kinds A bicycle Natural instances of artefactual kinds A spider web; a beaver dam 26

27 Natural versus artificial instances of natural and artefactual kinds Natural kind Artefactual kind Not human-made Natural Americium atom Natural diamond Influenza A virus Spider Web Beaver dam Human-made Artificial Synthetic Americium atom Synthetic diamond Synthetic Influenza A virus Bicycle Airplane GM Influenza A virus 27

28 An Aside: Patents and Americium 28

29 Conclusion Not one but two forms of creation 1. Weak creation: human-made but not designed 2. Strong creation: human-made and designed Not one but two great divides: 1. Natural versus artificial: Criterion: being created or not in a weak or strong sense by humans 2. Natural and artefactual kinds Criterion: being based on/the embodiment of a design (strong creation) 29

30 What does it mean to say that a technical artefact is the embodiment of a design? 30

31 Paley 1802: The machine [a watch] which we are inspecting, demonstrates, by its construction, contrivance and design [ ] an end, a purpose; means for the end, adaptation to the purpose. And the question, which irresistibly presses upon our thoughts, is, whence this contrivance and design. The thing required is the intending mind, the adapting hand, the intelligence by which that hand was directed. 31