HSC Biology. Published Feb 9, 2017 HSC BIOLOGY OPTION: COMMUNICATION. By Sahar (99.1 ATAR)
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1 HSC Biology Year 2014 Mark Pages 11 Published Feb 9, 2017 HSC BIOLOGY OPTION: COMMUNICATION By Sahar (99.1 ATAR)
2 Your notes author, Sahar. Sahar achieved an ATAR of 99.1 in 2014 while attending Carlingford High School Currently studying Bachelor of Science/ Master of Optometry at The University of New South Wales Achievements: Premier's Award for All-round Excellence in the NSW HSC (2014) Hornsby Shire Council Award for Academic Achievement (2014) First Place in Mathematics (at attended school) Distinguished Achievement Award in 2014 HSC Sahar says: I achieved a Band 6 in all these subjects: English Advanced (93), Mathematics (97), Mathematics Extension 1 (92), Economics (95), Biology (92) and Chemistry (90). Without my notes, I wouldn't have been able to achieve an ATAR of They are very organised and include diagrams, graphs and tables in relevant sections to assist learning. These notes will help you succeed and reach your HSC goals! Powered by TCPDF (
3 Option: Communication Chapter 1 Senses and sensory perception in communication Methods of communication: - Sight (visual): courtship behaviour, signal breeding times, threats e.g. colour and pattern of plumage in birds to attract mates - Sound (auditory): breeding, distress calls to alert danger, defend territory e.g. lyre bird males produce sounds to attract females - Smell (olfactory): marking territory, locating food, sex recognition e.g. skunks produce offensive odour to fend off predators, dogs and mice use smell to locate food, recognise trails and find receptive mate - Taste (gustatory): marking territory, detecting food e.g. chameleons lick branches of trees/shrubs to detect whether territory is occupied, butterflies and bees have taste buds on feet to locate food - Touch (tactile): courtship behaviour and mating e.g. hand touching in chimpanzees, male frog stroking female to stimulate release of eggs Receptors sensory structures that can detect changes in the environment Concentrated in particular areas to form sense organs Change stimuli into electrochemical signals (nerve impulses) Stimulus change in the internal or external environment of an organism Response reaction in organism as a result of receiving stimulus Stimuli Receptors Messengers (nerves) CNS (messages processed and interpreted, suitable response initiated) Messengers Effectors Response Chapter 2 Light as a visual stimulus and the eye as a receptor Conjunctiva thin, transparent membrane covering front of eye and continuing within inner layer of eyelid to protect cornea from damage by friction Cornea transparent structure which refracts incoming light rays so that they converge (refractive media RM) Sclera tough, non-elastic tissue (white of eye) which protects inner layers and preserves shape of eyeball, site of attachment for external eye muscles Choroid middle coat containing most blood vessels to supply nutrients to cells and remove waste products (posteriorly black to prevent reflection of light) Retina inner coat containing photoreceptors (rods light, cones colour, acute vision) relay and sensory neurones pass impulse along optic nerve Iris coloured part of eye behind cornea (contains melanin) made of connective tissue and smooth muscle to control size of pupil (opening in iris through which light rays pass) so enough light passes through Lens biconvex transparent structure which refracts light rays and directs them onto retina (highly elastic to enable it to change shape from rounded to flatter and accommodate for near and far vision) RM Consists mainly of living protein fibres (crystallins) housed in lens capsule Aqueous Humour transparent, watery fluid found in anterior part of eye between cornea and lens, maintains shape of anterior chamber of eyeball (provides nutrients for lens and cornea) RM Vitreous Humour transparent jelly-like substance located behind lens (acts as suspension so lens is not damaged), maintains shape of posterior chamber of eyeball RM Ciliary Body has suspensory ligaments to hold lens in place and ciliary muscles to enable lens to change shape during accommodation, secretes aqueous humour Optic Nerve nerve fibres from photoreceptors bundled together which carry electrical impulses of image from retina to brain 1
4 Range (nm) Radiation detected Comparison Reason Humans Cannot detect infrared or UV radiation Different means of hunting food sources, not pollinators Rattlesnake (vertebrate) Infrared Detect longer wavelengths but not some of shorter ones humans detect, larger range Infrared allows hunting at night and detecting prey in dark burrows Visible light allows navigation during day Honeybees (invertebrate) UV Detect shorter wavelengths but cannot detect red colour, range 100nm more UV food location, environment navigated easier, bullseye patterns on flowers directing bees to nectar, pollination Chapter 3 The transfer of the visual signal within the eye Refraction bending of light as it moves from one medium to another with different densities at any angle to its surface except 90 o (speed of travelling light changes) Movement of light in denser medium is slower refracted to greater degree Density of cornea, aqueous and vitreous humour, lens similar but different from air (greatest refraction occurs when light moves from air through cornea since change in refractive power is greatest here) Accommodation the focusing of objects at different distances, brought about by changing convexity of lens and, as a result, its refractive power Vision Ciliary muscles Suspensory Ligaments Lens shape Refractive power Focal Length Distant Relaxed Held taut Flatter, fairly elongated Less Longer Near Contract Slacken Rounder, thicker Greater Shorter Light rays travelling from distant source tend to be parallel (little refraction needed for image to fall on fovea of retina) Rays from close source tend to diverge (require greater refraction so they converge and fall on retina) Rest to max accommodation refractive power of lens changes from low to high Accommodation important for clear vision (if absent, light may converge in front of behind retina causing blurred vision) Myopia short-sightedness Distant objects form image in front of retina while near objects fall correctly on retina Causes: - Eyeball too elongated in shape - Refractive power of cornea inadequate - Lens may not become flat enough when ciliary muscles contract Corrected with concave lenses (thinner towards centre) as they bend light outwards causing them to diverge before entering eye which extends focal length of rays allowing image to fall on retina Hyperopia long-sightedness Near objects cannot be seen in focus as image falls behind retina but distant objects are clear Causes: - Eyeball too short from front to back - Lens is too flat and unable to alter its shape adequately (loss of elasticity in old age) - Refractive power of cornea too great for shape of eye Corrected with convex lens (thicker toward centre) as they bend incoming rays inwards causing them to begin converging before reaching eye which shortens focal length allowing focused image to fall on retina 2
5 Technologies to correct hyperopia and myopia: - Spectacles frames that hold corrective lenses in front of eye (used to be made out of glass but now, many are made of clear, hard plastic) Advantage of advance in technology lighter weight and less easily broken (lower risk of pieces entering eye) however, glass is less easily scratched and doesn t become hazy - Contact lenses based on similar principles to spectacles in terms of shape of lens and refraction of light (much smaller than lenses of spectacles and are worn directly on surface of eye) Types: hard (glass covering centre of cornea), soft (more flexible covering entire cornea), gas permeable (similar to hard but are porous can be worn for longer periods of time) - Refractive laser eye surgery use of lasers to change curvature of cornea and alter its refractive power LASIK (laser in situ) surgery cutting and lifting flap of cornea to introduce laser into middle layers of cornea to sculpt and shape cornea before replacing flap PRK (photorefractive keratectomy) surgery removing epithelium and surface of cornea then laser used to shape uppermost surface of cornea (epithelium grows back over cornea in 2 or 3 days) Current laser surgery involves using fine surgical instruments to shave corneal surface Cataract visual defect caused by clouding of lens of eye (interferes with ability to of eye to transmit clear signal lens becomes opaque and transmission of light is obstructed) Eyes may become more sensitive to glare of bright sunlight, Exact cause unknown but develop as a result of ageing or exposure to UV light for long time Treatment surgery involving IOL implantation (replace lens with plastic one) artificial lens placed in lens capsule Small incision no stitch technique involving phacoemulsification small vibrating probe inserting into eye to break lens into small particles that can be suctioned out with aspirator before new lens inserted Society implications restores sight enabling sufferers to live independently (improves quality of life), sufferers able to live productive lives and maintain roles in society, increased life expectancy Depth perception ability to judge distances (achieved by 2 forward facing eyes which produce 3D image) Production of 2 different images which brain interprets superimposes to produce single binocular vision Slight differences in 2 images creates 3D vision allowing calculation of depth Also achieved by from previous experience of size of object and parallax effect Chapter 4 Transformation in the retina: light signal to electric impulse Photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) contain light sensitive pigments and respond directly to light Convert light images into electrochemical signals that brain can interpret Rods and cones are last layer light reaches (situated closest to choroid layer) Photoreceptor cell layer: - Absorb light energy (involves visual pigments) - Convert light energy into electrochemical energy, generating nerve impulse - Transmit nerve impulse toward bipolar cells of retina Bipolar cell layer: sensory neurones receive electrochemical signals from rods and cones transmit signal to next layer of cells (ganglion cells) Ganglion cell layer: neurones receive electrochemical signals from bipolar cells distal end of cells extended into long processes that form fibres of optic nerve responsible for carrying electrochemical signals from retina to brain Horizontal cells occur at junction between photoreceptors and bipolar cells (connect one group of rod and cone cells with another then link them to bipolar cells) 3 Powered by TCPDF (
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