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1 Etruscan Studies Journal of the Etruscan Foundation Volume 10 Article Serpent Iconography Kristen Lee Hostetler Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Hostetler, Kristen Lee (2007) "Serpent Iconography," Etruscan Studies: Vol. 10, Article 16. Available at: This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Etruscan Studies by an authorized editor of Amherst. For more information, please contact

2 Serpent Iconography by Kristen Lee Hostetler Few creatures are as rich in iconographical symbolism as the serpent. In fact, their veneration is an almost universal aspect of cultures past and present. Cross-culturally, serpents symbolize fertility, immortality, wisdom, and prosperity. Due to their subterranean lairs and poisonous venom, they also became associated with death and the underworld, taking on aspects of ancestors, ghosts, and guardians. An important aspect of serpent symbolism is its relationship with life, death, and the underworld. As man saw the serpent emerging from dark recesses and rocky niches, he imagined it as the guardian of the earth, protecting whatever was placed within the ground. As a sexual symbol, analogous to the male member, it became connected with prosperity and life. With the ability to shed its skin, the serpent appears to renew its youth and increase its strength. This observation led to associations with youth, wisdom, health, immortality. Finally, the venom of the serpent must have been infamous. As a vehicle of death and vengeance, it was respected and feared. The Etruscans, who coexisted alongside these remarkable creatures, most likely acknowledged similar attributes. Serpentine motifs are found in Italy at an early date and become part of Etruscan iconography in nearly all art forms including the minor arts, sculpture, relief work, and tomb paintings. Italy itself has several species of snakes that inhabit the very hilltops on which the Etruscans constructed their settlements. Among these are the vipers (Vipera aspis aspis and Vipera berus berus). 1 I will argue here that the Etruscans not only included serpents in their vision of the underworld but a specific serpent, namely the adder (Vipera berus berus). The characteristic markings of the adder as well as its size mirror those found in the representations of serpents depicted in Etruscan art. In addition, the serpent does not merely inhabit the underworld, but it becomes an intricate part of the demons themselves. The serpent became an important part of Etruscan religion. Although often overlooked, these creatures have a prominent place in funerary art and deserve notice. According to J.W. Steward, three species of vipers inhabit mainland Italy, but only the adder (Viper 203

3 S e r p e n t I c o n o g r a p h y figure 1 Etruscan wall painting: scene of leave taking, Tomb of the Blue Demons; drawing by E. Ferrero. Late 5th-early 4th century BC. Tarquinia. (After Jannot 1998, fig. 39) figure 2 Wall painting of the demon Tuchulcha. Last quarter of the 4th century BC. From the Tomba dell Orco II, Tarquinia. (After Steingräber 1986, fig. 254) figure 3 Detail of serpent held by Tuchulcha from the Tomba dell Orco II. berus berus) and the asp (Vipera aspis aspis) populate the area between the Arno and the Tiber today, making them likely to be the models for the representations found in Etruscan tombs. One of the first scenes depicting serpents in the Etruscan underworld comes from the Tomb of the Blue Demons located in Tarquinia (5th/4th BC). On one of the long walls of the tomb chamber, the artisan has depicted the journey of the underworld. 2 At least three demons appear to be represented in this scene. One of the demons, near the center of the composition, is pushing a female figure towards the left. This figure illustrates an interesting encounter of two more demons, one holding two large serpents coiled around his arms, and another climbing over a projecting rock. The serpent carrier is painted the shade of blue often seen in Etruscan demons and is dressed in a red garment, which is wrapped around the body and clasped over one shoulder leaving the other bare. The serpents themselves are bearded and coiled around the demon s arm, and the markings are quite distinct. Both have a series of spots that run along their sides opposing the dorsal bands. This pattern is represented in other tombs as well. One of the most recognizable demons in the Etruscan underworld is Tuchulcha, shown here in the Tomba dell Orco II. 3 He also appears on the right wall menacing a figure labeled as Theseus. Tuchulcha holds a serpent in his well-preserved left hand and has two smaller serpents in his hair. As can be seen here in figure 2, the pattern of the serpent is clear and well preserved. Again, there is a sequence of spots running along the flank, alternating with the indentations formed by the continuous zigzag pattern. If a comparison is made between the serpents depicted in the Etruscan tomb paintings and the adder that inhabits Italy, one will certainly see the striking resemblance. The species even inhabits regions in the Arctic Circle, and no other snake covers more land area. It is found over most of Europe, including the foothills of the Apennines, and prefers wood- 204

4 - - K r i s t e n L e e H o s t e t l e r - - ed areas, rocky slopes, and hilly country. It displays a series of spots along its flank alternating with a dorsal zigzag pattern formed when the cross bands join together. The head exhibits an inverted V-shape with the apex pointing towards the nose and a single dark line that runs along the angle of the mouth terminating near the eye. 4 These are the very features that present themselves within the Etruscan tomb paintings. Figure 4 shows a drawing taken from Steward s The Snakes of Europe. It depicts two adders engaged in a combat dance. When looking at this image, it becomes evident that the serpents depicted in the tomb paintings must be vipers, and most likely the adder itself. For comparison, figure 5 shows the Whip snake. 5 This snake is an example of a typical non-poisonous species which currently inhabits Italy. The difference is clear. The lack of markings is quite different from the depictions seen in the tombs examined, and this difference is true for the other nonpoisonous species as well. And so, we can see that only the vipers and the representations share the same pattern, namely the zigzag/spot configuration. But now we need to ask ourselves why the Etruscans would choose to include the adder in their vision of the afterlife. The answer becomes evident when one examines the behavior and nature of this reptile. No one can deny the close relationship between the serpent and the earth. These figure 4 European Common Viper (Vipera berus berus). (After Steward 1971, pg. 89) figure 5 Line drawing showing two male adders in a combat dance. (After Steward 1971, pg 163) figure 6 Whip snake.(after creatures have been associated with death and the underworld cross-culturally in part due to their subterranean lairs and unique form of locomotion. In addition, the power of the serpent to inflict pain and induce death also gave it a prominent place in the human mind. The adder is one of the most lethal snakes found on mainland Italy. According to Swaroop and Grab, Italy had the second highest mortality rate due to snakebite in Europe between 1944 and 1948, averaging about 18 deaths per year. 6 Although this number may appear to be small, the frequency of encounters was much higher ion the past and anti-venom was not available. The Etruscans shared the same hilltops with these creatures and their stone dwellings surely enticed the snakes to visit. To quote Morris and 205

5 S e r p e n t I c o n o g r a p h y Morris, Generally speaking, the viperids are not as dangerous to man as the cobras and the mambas, yet in some ways the symptoms of viperine poisoning are even more alarming. 7 The power and pain that a snake could inflict in a single bite must have inspired the imagination of the Etruscans. The adder can attack swiftly often leaving little or no signs of a puncture. Within a few minutes, the poison starts to take hold. Symptoms include swelling around the area of the bite, which can grow to unbelievable dimensions and spread up the body. The skin changes color due to figure 7 Photograph showing the local hemorrhages turning blue, purple, green, and effects of the bite of Crotalus ruber black. 8 ruber, similar to the bite of Vipera berus berus. (After Russell 1980, Plate 1.E) Figure 6 shows an example of the discoloration associated with a viperid bite. Notice the deep blue color and how visibly the skin changes. After the discoloration sets in, blisters begin to appear leaving the skin streaked red and spotted with dark red or black blotches. The victim will vomit and experience abdominal pains and circulatory failure, which is the ultimate cause of death. It is no wonder that the Etruscans depicted these creatures in their art and gave them a revered place in their underworld. By taking another look at the Etruscan demons, we can see another interesting aspect of their appearance. The Tomba dei Caronti (Tarquinia, 3rd BC) depicts several male demons, some labeled as Charu. 9 These demons exhibit the typical blue skin, sometimes interpreted as decaying flesh. A different interpretation is suggested here. The skin of the demon depicted in figure 7 has a dull blue color and exhibits dark blotches over the entire body. Rather than representing decaying flesh, the Etruscan may have figure 8 Wall painting been attempting to exhibit one of the most powerful and frightening aspects of the serpent, namely the symptoms and discol- of Charu. End of the 3rd century BC. From the Tomba dei Caronti, oration associated with the venom. Tarquinia. (After Even today with medical knowledge and anti-venom, the Steingräber 1986, pl. 61) pain and symptoms caused by a single bite can have effects that linger on for weeks and leave emotional scars for even longer. In the past, these fears must have been even more vivid. The Etruscans had more encounters with these poisonous vipers than the people living in Italy today. The chance of experiencing or witnessing the effects of a viper bite over the course of a lifetime must have been very high. The symptoms associated with the viperine bite have already been discussed, and they closely resemble those exhibited by the demons depicted in the tomb paintings. It is hard to imagine that the Etruscan, quite familiar with the viper, would not recall the painful effects associated with the viper s bite when looking at these representations. 206

6 - - K r i s t e n L e e H o s t e t l e r - - The associations between the demons of the underworld and the viper do not end here. If we take another look at the demon Tuchulcha depicted in the Tomba dell Orco, we can see an even closer connection. Tuchulcha was seen earlier threatening the figure labeled as Theseus. If we take a closer look at this demon, certain elements appear to deserve comment. The wings have a color and pattern mirroring that seen in the very snake the demon is grasping. The pattern, a dorsal zigzag with a series of spots opposing the created indentations, is now familiar to us. This pattern appears in the border and the lower half of the wings themselves. The upper half appears to be feathered similar to that of a bird, but the lower half is clearly different. Incorporating serpentine elements into the very body of a demon not only appears here with Tuchulcha but elsewhere. In the Tomba dell Orco I, the demon Charu is painted on the rear wall shown in figure He is brandishing a serpent over his shoulder and his typical mallet in one hand. The wings once more are bordered with the serpent motif and the lower half consists of alternating red and blue serpentine elements. These embellishments give the wings added effect, making the demons more monstrous and terrifying. figure 9 Wall painting of Charu. Middle of the 4th century BC. Tomba dell Orco I, Tarquinia. (After Steingräber 1986, 329) figure 10 Detail of a male anguiped demon. 3rd century BC. Tomba del Tifone, Tarquinia. (After O. Brendel 1995, pg. 419) In addition to these features, Etruscan anguiped demons also exhibit the characteristics common to the Italian viper. The Tomba del Tifone located in Tarquinia is known for its representations of anguipeds shown in figure On the upper half of a pillar on the right and left sides, two nearly identical male anguipeds are shown with their arms upraised as if supporting the ceiling. Their legs are serpentine and twist around themselves bringing the heads of the serpents to the waist level of the demons. Although the paintings are now faded, certain patterns can still be detected on the legs. On both demons, the serpentine legs appear to preserve traces of the zigzag design that was identified with the adder and shown to exist in the serpents depicted in the tombs. The right leg of the demon shown in figure 10 preserves several dark inverted triangular shapes consistent with those used to depict the zigzag band that runs along the backs of the serpents. 207

7 S e r p e n t I c o n o g r a p h y So how can these connections add to our understanding of the Etruscan demons and the underworld? Similar to the serpents represented in the Roman house shrines shown in figure 11, the vipers within the Etruscan tombs protect the grave from intruders, but may also prevent the spirit of the deceased from leaving to haunt the land of the living. According to Orr, the serpents depicted on the Roman shrines may have been believed to spring to life in order to protect the house from any transgression against the family, and the Etruscans may have granted a similar power to the vipers depicted within their tombs. 12 In addition, the demons with the use of actual serpents and mallets ward away intruders and harass figure 11 House shrine from Pompeii showing the viper wrapping itself the dead, but at the same time they are a visual around an altar with offerings to the family Genius. (After Orr 1978, pl. III.5) reminder of the consequences of displeasing their ophidian guards. The bluish skin, blisters, and swellings would remind onlookers of the effects of the viperid bite allowing the demons to induce fear without the help of a serpent. Moreover, the demons themselves become manifestations of the associations common to the serpents due to their incorporation of ophidian qualities giving the demons greatly varied roles and richer iconographical significance. Kritin Lee Hostetler N O T E S 1. Steward 1971, For a cross-cultural examination of the cult of the serpent, see Mundkur Jannot 1998, fig Steingräber 1986, 279. For more information on Tuchulcha, see de Ruyt 1934, 11-3, 43, 49, 146-7, 154, 189, ; Herbig and Simon 1965, 21, 46-7; Jannot 1993, 78-80; Harari 1997, Steward 1971, Steward 1971, Swaroop and Grab 1954, Morris and Morris Russell 1980, ; Lee 1979, Steingräber 1986, 300; Moretti 1966, De Ruyt 1934, 9-11; Steingräber 1986,

8 - - K r i s t e n L e e H o s t e t l e r Steingräber 1986, 347; Haynes 2000, Orr 1978, B I B L I O G R A P H Y Brendel, O Etruscan Art. New Haven. De Ruyt, F Charun, démon étrusque de la mort. Rome. Harari, M Tuchulcha. LIMC 8: Haynes, S Etruscan Civilization. A Cultural History. Los Angeles. Jannot, J.-R Charun, Tuchulcha et les autres. RM 100: Jannot, J.-R Devins, dieux, et la mort. Paris. Lee, C.V Snake Venoms. New York. Moretti, M Nuovi monumenti della pittura etrusca. Milan. Morris, R. and D. Morris Men and Snakes. New York. Mundkur, B The Cult of the Serpent. New York. Russell, F.E Snake Venom Poisoning. New York. Steingräber S. (ed.) Etruscan Painting. New York. Steward, J.W The Snakes of Europe. Madison, NJ. Swaroop, S. and B. Grab Snake Bite Mortality in the World. Bull. of the World Health Organization 10: