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1 CONTENTS Contributors... ii Foreword... xiii Preface... xv Part One: Identifying the Challenge Chapter 1 The Military Operational Environment... 3 Keith L. Hiatt and Clarence E. Rash Current and Changing Roles...3 The Demands of Combat...6 Uniqueness of the Tri-Service Military Communities...7 Warfighter Demographics...8 Army Transformation Plan...13 Battlespace Information, Information Superiority, and Network Centric Warfare...15 The Physical Environment...17 Additional Operational Factors...18 Psychological Factors...23 The Warfighter, HMD and Cognition...24 References...24 Chapter 2 The Human-Machine Interface Challenge Gregory S. Francis, Clarence E. Rash and Michael B. Russo Human Sensation, Perception and Cognition...29 Machine: Helmet-Mounted Displays...35 The HMD as a Human-Machine Interface: Statement of the Challenge...41 References...42 Part Two: Helmet-Mounted Displays Chapter 3 Introduction to Helmet-Mounted Displays Michael M. Bayer, Clarence E. Rash and James H. Brindle Defining the Helmet-Mounted Display...47 Classifying Visual Helmet-Mounted Display Designs...49 The History of Helmet-Mounted Displays...54 Advantages of Helmet-Mounted Displays...58 Limitations and Disadvantages of Helmet-Mounted Displays...61 Helmet-Mounted Display Applications...62 Current and Future Helmet-Mounted Display Programs...72
2 viii Contents User Acceptance References Chapter 4 Visual Helmet-Mounted Displays Clarence E. Rash, Michael M. Bayer, Thomas H. Harding and William E. McLean Optical Designs Image Quality Display Technologies Unique Issues References Chapter 5 Audio Helmet-Mounted Displays Phuong K. Tran, Bruce E. Amrein and Tomasz R. Letowski Acoustic Environment Auditory Signals and Display Formats Head-Related Transfer Function Audio HMD System Specifications Audio HMD Transmitter Systems Hearing Protection Devices Communication and Hearing Protection Systems Acoustically Transparent Helmet Audio HMD System Design Issues Audio HMD Systems: Closing Remarks References Part Three: The Human Visual and Auditory Sensory Systems Chapter 6 Basic Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Eye Corina van de Pol The Protective Structures of the Eye The Anterior Segment of the Eye The Posterior Segment of the Eye The Visual System Pathways to the Brain The Visual Cortex References Chapter 7 Visual Function Thomas O. Salmon and Corina van de Pol The Physical Nature of Light How the Eye Forms an Image Refractive Errors and Their Correction Testing the Visual System...256
3 Contents Spatial Vision Peripheral Vision Visual Adaptation to High and Low Illumination Color Vision Accommodation The Eye s Temporal Responsiveness Temporal Contrast Sensitivity Eye Movements Binocular Vision Conclusion References Chapter 8 Basic Anatomy of the Hearing System Sumalai Maroonroge, Diana C. Emanuel and Tomasz R. Letowski Hearing System Outer Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear Bone Conduction System Vestibulocochlear Nerve Central Auditory Nervous System References Chapter 9 Auditory Function Diana C. Emanuel, Sumalai Maroonroge and Tomasz R. Letowski Physiology and Function of the Hearing System The Outer Ear The Middle Ear The Inner Ear Bone Conduction Vestibular System Function Central Auditory Nervous System Function References Part Four: Perception, Cognition and Performance Chapter 10 Visual Perception and Cognitive Performance José E. Capó-Aponte, Leonard A. Temme, H. Lee Task, Alan R. Pinkus, Melvyn E. Kalich, Allan J. Pantle and Clarence E. Rash Brightness Perception Size Constancy Visual Acuity ix
4 x Contents Contrast Sensitivity Color Discrimination Attention Capture Motion Perception Monocular vs. Binocular Vision References Chapter 11 Auditory Perception and Cognitive Performance Angélique A. Scharine, Kara D. Cave and Tomasz R. Letowski Audition Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level Threshold of Hearing Threshold of Pain Area of Hearing Auditory Discrimination Loudness Masking Critical Bands Pitch Phase and Polarity Timbre Sound Quality Perceived Duration Time Error Speech Perception Auditory Spatial Perception Hearing Loss References Chapter 12 Visual Perceptual Conflicts and Illusions Leonard A. Temme, Melvyn E. Kalich, Ian P. Curry, Alan R. Pinkus, H. Lee Task and Clarence E. Rash Visual Masking Binocular Rivalry Hyperstereopsis The Concept of Illusions Static Illusions Dynamic Illusions Illusions and HMDs Spatial Disorientation Luning References...570
5 Contents Chapter 13 Auditory Conflicts and Illusions Angélique A. Scharine and Tomasz R. Letowski Perceptual Conflicts and Illusions Auditory Scene Analysis Auditory Conflicts and Illusions Attention and Illusions References Chapter 14 Auditory-Visual Interactions Thomas G. Ghirardelli and Angélique A. Scharine Multisensory Perception Dominant Characteristics of Audition and Vision Interaction of Audition and Vision Auditory-Visual Synergy and Redundancy Multisensory Attention Human Factors Issues in Audio-Visual Displays References Chapter 15 Cognitive Factors Gregory S. Francis and Clarence E. Rash Methodological Techniques for Studying Cogitation and Perception Cognitive Resources Cognitive Functions Special Topics Case Study 1: Hyperstereo Helmet-Mounted Displays Case Study 2: The Integrated Helmet and Display Sighting System (IHADSS) Applying Knowledge about Cognition to Helmet-Mounted Display Designs References Chapter 16 Performance Effects Due to Adverse Operational Factors Clarence E. Rash, Keith L. Hiatt, Robert M. Wildzunas, J. Lynn Caldwell, John A Caldwell, Melvyn E. Kalich, Gregory T. Lang, Ronald P. King and Robert Noback Introduction to Stress and Stressors Psychological Stress Physiological Stress Self-Imposed (Internal) Stressors Environment (External) Stressors Ergonomic Issues Summary References xi
6 xii Part Five: Meeting the HMD Design Challenge Contents Chapter 17 Guidelines for HMD Design James E. Melzer, Frederick T. Brozoski, Tomasz R. Letowski, Thomas H. Harding, and Clarence E. Rash User-Centered Design Focus Optical/Visual Guidelines and Recommendations Visual vs. Auditory Mode for HMDs Acoustic/Auditory Guidelines and Recommendations Biodynamic Guidelines and Recommendations Perceptual and Cognitive Guidelines User Adjustment Recommendations Recommendation Summary References Chapter 18 Exploring the Tactile Modality for HMDs Kimberly P. Myles and Mary S. Binseel The Concept of Tactile Interfaces The Physiological Basis of Tactile Stimulation Elements of Vibrotactile Perception Tactile Displays: Tactors Tactile Interfaces: Applications Tactile Head/Helmet-Mounted Displays References Chapter 19 The Potential of an Interactive HMD James E. Melzer and Clarence E. Rash Why an HMD? Situation Awareness and Cognitive Workload Attention, Cognitive Resources and Cross-Modal Integration Examples of HMD Imagery Measuring Workload and Situation Awareness Using Real-Time Measures to Improve Training Performance Adaptive Automation Summary References Abbreviations and Acronyms Glossary Index
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