Chapter 8 Technology Content, Processes and Standards

Transcription

1 262 Chapter 8 Content, Processes and Standards If status of a school subject is at issue, then content, benchmarks and standards cannot be underestimated. Of course, the question is what content and what (or whose) standards? has suffered as a school subject in many ways because of the lack of consistent content and a defensible set of standards. What technology should a student in grade 2 know about and be able to use? What about grade 6 or grade 8 or grade 10, or grade 12, at graduation? What are the benchmarks for each grade level? We do not yet know. Should we have consistent technology content and standards for all students from K-12? Should all teachers abide by the content and standards? Should we have exams to monitor the students and teachers? Or ought teachers have the freedom to teach what they want? If a student moves from one school to another s/he will face a different curriculum with different goals. But the teachers will have the freedom and power to make professional judgments about what to teach. Who should make these judgments? As indicated in the previous chapter, there is one, and only one, persuasive justification for the inclusion of technology studies in the schools. That justification is the content of technology. As recent as ten years ago, we were unable to speak of "the content" of technology in North American schools. The situation has changed and persuasive cases have been made to move technology studies from the margins of the schools to the center. is now an extremely relevant subject in its own right, with a well-established curriculum and fund of instructional methods. In Chapter 7, we began with a comprehensive rationale for teaching technology in the schools. This chapter deals generally with content and standards, and specifically with the most recent projects to specify content and standards for technology studies. Consistency in content and standards from school to school has always been a contentious issue. In no subject has this been more contentious than technology. To date, technology teachers in North America have enjoyed near total liberty in offering any curriculum they pleased. Currently, Canadian students who move from one province to another, or from school to school, are penalized for the lack of consistency from province to province. In the US, this has also been the case, with differences between states, districts and schools. studies differs from school to school in BC and students or teachers who relocate find little, if any, consistency and continuity. Even the names are inconsistent. There is no examination system to generate consistency and hold teachers accountable to standard sets of content. Nevertheless, this is changing through content standards for technology. Consistency, articulation and accountability are the operative words in technology studies at this point.

2 263 Content There are fundamentally three sources of content: individuals, culture and nature. Content derived from an individual will be developmental, physical or psychological. Content derived from nature will tend to be biological or ecological and based on basic needs and survival. Content derived from culture will be institutional, sociological or spiritual. The emphases of content derived from each source will range from practical to academic. Over the past century, technology teachers have derived content from all three sources. Currently, technology educators are focusing their efforts on content derived from culture, or more specifically, from a structure or discipline of technology. The source of content has always been contentious in technology studies, partially due to our activity-based practices and partially due to the changing state of technology. How can we establish stable content when technology is inherently dynamic? Should we focus on technological processes, which tend to be transferable? Should we focus on technological occupations and tasks, which tend to be accessible and current? Should we focus on technological concepts, which tend to be durable? There is not an airtight argument to be made for any of these social sources of content. Each has its benefits and problems. However, given the politics of the schools in this new century, where survival depends on establishing a subject as an academic discipline with coherent K-12+ content, technology educators must choose wisely. And the wisest choice at this time is disciplinary content, not the content of processes or occupations. If necessary, disciplinary content can be ordered to serve the content of processes or content of occupations. Either way, disciplinary content must take priority. We derive content through a number of methods. The content of a discipline is derived from a conceptual analysis of facts, concepts, generalizations and theories established over time. The content of occupations is derived from a task analysis of work and workers at specific points in time. The content of processes is derived from a systems analysis of processes and methods at specific points in time extended over time. To do a conceptual analysis, one has to make logical inferences from established principles and existing problems. To do a task analysis, one has to make procedural observations of tasks. To do a systems analysis, one has to make systematic observations of problems or processes. The point is that we can derive social content from disciplines, processes or problems and tasks. In most cases, a curriculum consists of combinations of disciplinary content, processes and tasks. Of course, disciplines, problems, processes, and tasks change over time. Values and priorities also change. The materials, process and task-based content of industrial (arts) education and audio-visual education is not as relevant today as it was in the 1950s and 1960s. The trend is toward disciplinary content in the technology curriculum.

3 264 Content and Standards Currently, in many countries there are efforts to reform the K-12 curriculum for all subjects by forming a defensible set of standards to make content consistent from school to school. For example, the International Education Association's (ITEA) Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of project is making technology content consistent and forming a defensible set of academic standards for the study of technology. The International Society for in Education (ISTE) established standards for the study of information technology and published National Educational Standards for Students. In England, the Department for Education Standards established technology content and standards and published Design and in the National Curriculum in Education standards for all subjects can be found in Kendall and Marzano s (1997) Content Knowledge: A Compendium of Standards and s for K-12 Education. There are basically three kinds of academic standards: Content, performance and proficiency standards. Definitions of Standards Academic standards are basically statements that clearly define what a student should know and be able to do. There are: Content Standards- What students should know and be able to do. Performance Standards- How students demonstrate that they meet a standard. Proficiency Standards- How well the students must perform. The ITEA's and ISTE's standards projects deal primarily with content and performance standards. Both projects were initiated in the mid 1990s amidst national and international incentives to make the study of technology consistent. The relationship between the two projects is set to subset. The ISTE's standards can be seen as a subset of the ITEA's standards. ISTE has dealt specifically with information technologies where the ITEA dealt generally with the entire scope of technology, including information technology. The ITEA's standards extend over five broad themes: Nature of, and Society, Design, Abilities for a Technological World, and the Designed World. These standards are providing an effective blueprint for the creation of a scope and sequence of content for technology subject at the K-12 levels. The question we asked in Chapter 7, "what should all students know about and be able to do in technology?, is being resolved. We now have a defensible set of technology standards; we are approaching a comprehensive scope and sequence of content for study.

4 265 ITEA's Standards for Technological Literacy: The Nature of 1. Students will develop an understanding of the characteristics and scope of technology. 2. Students will develop an understanding of the core concepts of technology. 3. Students will develop an understanding of the relationships among technologies and the connections between technology and other fields of study. and Society 4. Students will develop an understanding of the cultural, social, economic, and political effects of technology. 5. Students will develop an understanding of the effects of technology on the environment. 6. Students will develop an understanding of the role of society in the development and use of technology. 7. Students will develop an understanding of the influence of technology on history. Design 8. Students will develop an understanding of the attributes of design. 9. Students will develop an understanding of engineering design. 10. Students will develop an understanding of the role of troubleshooting, research and development, invention and innovation, and experimentation in problem solving. Abilities for a Technological World 11. Students will develop abilities to apply the design process. 12. Students will develop abilities to use and maintain technological products and systems. 13. Students will develop abilities to assess the impact of products and systems. The Designed World 14. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use medical technologies. 15. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use agricultural and related biotechnologies. 16. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use energy and power technologies. 17. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use information and communication technologies. 18. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use transportation technologies. 19. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use manufacturing technologies. 20. Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use construction technologies. The breadth of these standards is quite comprehensive and inclusive, encompassing nearly all facets of technology. This is one aspect of technological pluralism at work. These standards name the scope of what is to be studied and place parameters around the disciplinary content of technology. ISTE's standards focus specifically on information technology and primarily on the use of technology. Quite often in the education, we hear naive assertions that "technology is merely a tool." A tool is certainly a technology, but technology is not merely a tool to be used for tasks. As indicated in the previous chapter, technology is a subject to be studied. We need to be

5 266 very careful of overemphasizing the "use" of technologies as this may come at the expense of actually studying the technologies we use. We cannot justify an entire curriculum on the use of technology. Granted, the Standards for Technological Literacy cover a fairly comprehensive range of technologies that include the information technologies. ISTE's Foundation Standards: Basic operations and concepts Students demonstrate a sound understanding of the nature and operation of technology systems. Students are proficient in the use of technology. Social, ethical, and human issues Students understand the ethical, cultural, and societal issues related to technology. Students practice responsible use of technology systems, information, and software. Students develop positive attitudes toward technology uses that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity. productivity tools Students use technology tools to enhance learning, increase productivity, and promote creativity. Students use productivity tools to collaborate in constructing technology-enhanced models, prepare publications, and produce other creative works. communications tools Students use telecommunications to collaborate, publish, and interact with peers, experts, and other audiences. Students use a variety of media and formats to communicate information and ideas effectively to multiple audiences. research tools Students use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information from a variety of sources. Students use technology tools to process data and report results. Students evaluate and select new information resources and technological innovations based on the appropriateness for specific tasks. problem-solving and decision-making tools Students use technology resources for solving problems and making informed decisions. Students employ technology in the development of strategies for solving problems in the real world. The ITEA's and ISTE's standards are arranged according to similar content organizers (Table 8.1). Although this is by coincidence rather than by design, the organizers for each set of standards complement and validate each other. But again, the ITEA's organizers are more comprehensive than ISTE's.

6 267 Table 8.1. ITEA s and ISTE s Content Organizers ITEA Organizers ISTE Organizers: Technological Concepts and Principles Technological Design Developing and Producing Technological Systems Utilizing and Managing Technological Systems Linkages Nature and History of Assessing the Impacts and Consequences of Technological Systems Basic Operations and Concepts Communications Tools Productivity Tools Problem Solving and Decision Making Tools Research Tools Social, Ethical and Human Issues The ITEA's standards are derived from a discipline of technology arranged by contexts, knowledge and processes (Fig. 8.1). The base of the discipline is grounded on the forms that technology takes or the general sub-disciplines with which we associate technology: Information technology, Physical technology, and Biological and Chemical technology. This is a departure from traditional sub-disciplinary organizers such as communications, production and transportation. In another section, this tendency toward more general organizers is explained. These organizers are broad enough to accommodate a wide range of technological knowledge (concepts, history, linkages and principles) and processes (assessment, design, development, management, production and utilization). At another level, biological, physical, information and physical technologies are sub-divided into the technologies that most technology educators recognize: agricultural and related biotechnologies, energy and power technologies, information and communication technologies, medical technologies, construction technologies, manufacturing technologies and transportation technologies. Agricultural technologies, biotechnologies and medical technologies bring school subjects such as agricultural education and health occupations education into the fold of technology studies. At the lower levels of schooling, all of these technologies are included in the single subject of technology or integrated across the curriculum. At the upper levels, the entire spectrum is handled in one course, in some cases, and across several subjects, in most cases.

7 268 Knowledge Nature and History of Processes Technological Design Linkages Developing and Producing Technological Systems Utilizing and Managing Technological Systems Technological Concepts and Principles Assessing the Impacts and Consequences of Technological Systems Information Physical Contexts Figure 8.1. ITEA's Organizers for Standards Biological and Chemical ISTE's standards and organizers are derived from a practical field that merges educational technology with information and communication technology (Fig. 8.2). This is both an advantage and a disadvantage. The advantage is that ISTE's standards can be easily integrated across the curriculum with little or no need for a separate subject of information technology. Of course this can be a disadvantage if we take the position that technology is a subject to be studied in its own right, and not merely integrated (Chapter 7). The disadvantage of combining educational with information technology is that there is not a coherent discipline from which to derive content. The result is that the curriculum of information technology cannot be derived from ISTE's standards or organizers. In Chapter 1, the discipline of information technology was described as an outgrowth of computer engineering and science. As we proceed through this chapter, keep in mind the fact that information and communication technology (ICT) is a sub-discipline of the discipline of technology. The two sets of standards should not be interpreted as being in competition with each other. ISTE's standards are a subset of the ITEA's standards for technology studies.

8 269 Software Hardware Infrastructure Basic Operations and Concepts Communication Tools Social, Ethical and Human Issues Research Tools Problem-Solving Tools Productivity Tools Data People Procedures Figure 8.2. ISTE's Organizers for Foundation Standards Content, Standards and s The technology content standards are backed up by benchmarks and performance standards. Basically, content standards derive from well-articulated disciplines and fields. s and performance standards derive from content standards, and proficiency standards from these performance standards. Ultimately, classroom activities, assessment, lessons and projects are derived from these different types of standards. This is the rational procedure to follow. The reverse direction, where a structure of content originates from activities and projects, cannot lead to consistent practices in a subject. The challenge is to subscribe to the technology discipline and standards while developing locally based activities and projects to meet the standards. The challenge is to adopt a consistent structure of content and standards and then proceed toward local innovation. Standards have to be translatable for practice. Teachers must be able to express the standards in their practices at all levels. Consistency, articulation and accountability are the operative terms at this point in time. Consistency is a necessary step towards accountability. If technology teachers are consistent in the content they teach from school to school then technology studies can be accountable to its constituents. Articulation is dependent on consistency and accountability. It is somewhat easier to establish consistency than an articulation of content and knowledge over the K-12 system. What should a grade 6 student know about technology that a grade 5 student does not know? The task of articulation is extremely challenging but essential to subjects. The following tables provide an

9 270 overview of the ITEA's standards and benchmark topics. As you survey these tables, pay close attention to the articulation of content from level to level. Nature of Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12 Characteristics and Scope of Core Concepts of Relationships Among Technologies and the Connections Between and Other Fields Natural world and human-made world People and Systems Resources Processes Connections between technology and other subjects Things found in nature and in the human-made world Tools, materials, and skills Creative thinking Systems Resources Requirements Technologies integrated Processes Relationships between technology and other fields of study Usefulness of technology Development of Human creativity and motivation Product demand Systems Resources Requirements Trade-offs Processes Controls Interaction of systems Nature of technology Rate of technological diffusion Goal-directed research Commercialization of technology Systems Resources Requirements Optimization and Trade-offs Processes Controls Interrelation of technological environments Knowledge from other fields of study and technology transfer Innovation and Invention Knowledge protection and patents Technological knowledge and advances of science and math and vice versa

10 271, Society and Design Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12 The Cultural, Social, Economic, and Political Effects of The Effects of on the Environment The Role of Society in the Development and Use of Helpful or harmful Reuse and/or recycling of materials Needs and wants of individuals Good and bad effects Unintended consequences Recycling and disposal of waste Affects environment in good and bad ways Changing needs and wants Expansion or limitation of development Attitudes toward development and use Impacts and consequences Ethical issues Influences on economy, politics, and culture Management of waste Technologies repair damage Environmental vs. economic concerns Development driven by demands, values, and interests Inventions and innovations Social and cultural priorities Acceptance and use of products and systems Rapid or gradual changes Trade-offs and effects Ethical implications Cultural, social, economic, and political changes Conservation Reduce resource use Monitor environment Alignment of natural and technological processes Reduce negative consequences of technology Decisions and tradeoffs Different cultures and technologies Development decisions Factors affecting designs and demands of technologies

11 272 Standards The Influence of on History Grades K-2 Ways people have lived and worked Grades 3-5 Tools for food, clothing, and protection Grades 6-8 Processes of inventions and innovations Specialization of labor Grades 9-12 Evolution of technology Dramatic changes in society History of tech. Evolution of techniques, measurement, and resources Technological and scientific knowledge Early technological history and Iron Age Middle Ages and Renaissance Industrial Revolution The Attributes of Design Engineering Design Everyone can design Design is a creative Process Engineering design process Expressing design ideas to others Definitions of design Requirements of design Engineering design process Creativity and considering all ideas Design leads to useful products and systems There is no perfect design Requirements Iterative Information Age The design process Design problems are usually not clear Refining Designs Requirements The Role of Troubleshooting, Research and Development, Invention and Innovation, Experimentation in Problem Solving Asking questions and making observations All products need to be maintained Models Troubleshooting Invention and innovation Experimentation Brainstorming Modeling, testing, evaluating, and modifying Troubleshooting Invention and innovation Experimentation Design principles Influence of personal characteristics Prototypes Factors in engineering design Research and development Research problems Not all problems are technological or can be solved Multidisciplinary approach

12 273 Abilities for a Technological World Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12 Apply the Design Process Use and Maintain Technological Products and Systems Assess the Impact of Products and Systems Solve problems through design Build something Investigate how things are made Discover how things work Use tools correctly and safely Recognize and use everyday symbols Collect information about everyday products Determine the qualities of a product Collect information Visualize a solution Test and evaluate solutions Improve a design Follow step-by-step instructions Select and safely use tools Use computers to access and organize information Use common symbols Use information to identify patterns Assess the influence of technology Examine trade-offs Apply design process Identify criteria and constraints Model a solution to a problem Test and evaluate Make a product or system Use information to see how things work Safely use tools to diagnose, adjust, and repair Use computers and calculators Operate systems Design and use instruments to collect data Use collected data to find trends Identify trends Identify a design problem Identify criteria and constraints Refine the design Evaluate the design Develop a product or system using quality control Reevaluate final solution(s) Document and communicate processes and procedures Diagnose a malfunctioning system Troubleshoot and maintain systems Operate and maintain systems Use computers to Communicate Interpret and evaluate accuracy of information Collect information and judge its quality Synthesize data to draw conclusions Employ assessment techniques Design forecasting techniques

13 274 The Designed World Standards Grades K-2 Medical Technologies Agricultural and Related Biotechnologies Vaccinations Medicine Products to take care of people and their belongings Technologies in Agriculture Tools and materials for use in ecosystems Grades 3-5 Vaccines and medicine Development of devices to repair or replace certain parts of the body Use of products and systems to inform Artificial ecosystems Agriculture wastes Processes in agriculture Grades 6-8 Advances and innovations in medical technologies Sanitation processes Immunology Awareness about genetic engineering Advances in agriculture Specialized equipment Biotechnology and agriculture Artificial ecosystems and management Grades 9-12 Medical technologies for prevention and rehabilitation Telemedicine Genetic therapeutics Biochemistry Agricultural products and systems Biotechnology Conservation Engineering design and management of ecosystems Development of Energy and Power Technologies Energy comes in many forms Energy should not be wasted Energy comes in different forms Tools, machines, products, and systems use energy to do work refrigeration, freezing, dehydration, preservation, and irradiation Energy is the capacity to do work Law of Conservation of Energy Energy sources Second Law of Thermodynamics Energy can be used to do work using many processes Renewable and non renewable forms of energy Power is the rate at which energy is converted from one form to another Power systems are a source, a process, and a load Power systems Efficiency and conservation

14 275 Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12 Information and Communication Technologies Information Communication Symbols Processing information Many sources of information Communication Symbols Information and communication systems Communication systems encode, transmit, and receive information Factors influencing the design of a message Parts of information and communication systems Information and communication systems The purpose of information and communication technology Language of technology Communication systems and subsystems Many ways of communicating Communicating through symbols Transportation Technologies Transportation system Individuals and goods Care of transportation products and systems Transportation system use Transportation systems and subsystems Design and operation of transportation systems Subsystems of transportation system Governmental regulations Transportation processes Relationship of transportation to other technologies Intermodalism Transportation of services and methods Impacts of transportation systems Transportation processes and efficiency

15 276 Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12 Manufacturing Technologies Manufacturing systems Design of products Natural materials Manufacturing processes Consumption of goods Chemical technologies Manufacturing systems Manufacturing goods Manufacturing processes Chemical technologies Materials use Marketing products Servicing and obsolescence Durable or nondurable goods Manufacturing systems Interchangeability of parts Chemical technologies Construction Technologies Different types of buildings How parts of buildings fit Modern communities Structures Systems used Construction designs Foundations Purpose of structures Buildings systems and sub-systems Marketing Infrastructure Construction processes and procedures Requirements Maintenance, alterations, and renovation Prefabricated materials By isolating information and communication technologies from the content standards, we can see how performance standards articulate the next level form content standards closer to practice. Performance standards state how students will demonstrate that they meet a standard. ISTE's performance standards for ICT provide clear statements of what students should be able to do in ICT at different levels in the K-12 system. By combining content and performance standards, it is clear how consistency, articulation and accountability can be established in technology studies.

16 277 ISTE's Grades K-2 Performance Standards 1. Use input devices (e.g., mouse, keyboard, remote control) and output devices (e.g., monitor, printer) to successfully operate computers, VCRs, audio tapes, telephones, and other technologies. 2. Use a variety of media and technology resources for directed and independent learning activities. 3. Communicate about technology using developmentally appropriate and accurate terminology. 4. Use developmentally appropriate multimedia resources (e.g., interactive books, educational software, elementary multimedia encyclopedias) to support learning. 5. Work cooperatively and collaboratively with peers, family members, and others when using technology in the classroom. 6. Demonstrate positive social and ethical behaviors when using technology. 7. Practice responsible use of technology systems and software. 8. Create developmentally appropriate multimedia products with support from teachers, family members, or student partners. 9. Use technology resources (e.g., puzzles, logical thinking programs, writing tools, digital cameras, drawing tools) for problem solving, communication, and illustration of thoughts, ideas, and stories. 10. Gather information and communicate with others using telecommunications, with support from teachers, family members, or student partners. ISTE's Grades 3-5 Performance Standards 1. Use keyboards and other common input and output devices (including adaptive devices when necessary) efficiently and effectively. 2. Discuss common uses of technology in daily life and advantages and disadvantages those uses provide. 3. Discuss basic issues related to responsible use of technology and information; and describe personal consequences of inappropriate use. 4. Use general-purpose productivity tools and peripherals to support personal productivity, to remediate skill deficits, and to facilitate learning throughout the curriculum. 5. Use technology tools (e.g., multimedia authoring, presentation, web tools, digital cameras, scanners) for individual and collaborative writing, communication, and publishing activities to create knowledge products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. 6. Use telecommunications efficiently and effectively to access remote information and communicate with others in support of direct and independent learning and for pursuit of personal interests. (4) 7. Use telecommunications and on-line resources (e.g., , online discussions, web environments) to participate in collaborative problem-solving activities to develop solutions or products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. 8. Use technology resources (e.g., calculators, data collection probes, videos, educational software) for problem-solving, self-directed learning, and extended learning activities. 9. Determine when technology is useful and select the appropriate tool(s) and technology resources to address a variety of tasks and problems. 10. Evaluate the accuracy, relevance, appropriateness, comprehensiveness, and bias of electronic information sources.

17 278 ISTE's Grades 6-8 Performance Standards 1. Apply strategies for identifying and solving routine hardware and software problems that occur during everyday use. 2. Demonstrate knowledge of current changes in information technologies and the effect those changes have on the workplace and society. 3. Exhibit legal and ethical behaviors when using information and technology, and discuss consequences of misuse. 4. Use content-specific tools, software and simulations (e.g., environmental probes, graphing calculators, exploratory environments, Web tools) to support learning and research. 5. Apply productivity/multimedia tools and peripherals to support personal productivity, group collaboration, and learning throughout the curriculum. 6. Design, develop, publish and present products (e.g., Web pages, video tapes) using technology resources that demonstrate and communicate curriculum concepts to audiences inside and outside the classroom. 7. Collaborate with peers, experts, and others using telecommunications and collaborative tools to investigate curriculum-related problems, issues, and information, and to develop solutions or products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. 8. Select and use appropriate tools and technology resources to accomplish a variety of tasks and solve problems. 9. Demonstrate an understanding of concepts underlying hardware, software, and connectivity, and practical applications to learning and problem-solving. 10. Research and evaluate the accuracy, relevance, appropriateness, comprehensiveness, and bias of electronic information sources concerning real-world problems. ISTE's Grades 9-12 Performance Standards 1. Identify capabilities and limitations of contemporary and emerging technology resources and assess the potential of these systems and services to address personal, lifelong learning, and workplace needs. 2. Make informed choices among technology systems, resources, and services. 3. Analyze advantages and disadvantages of widespread use and reliance on technology in the workplace and in society as a whole. 4. Demonstrate and advocate legal and ethical behaviors among peers, family, and community regarding the use of technology and information. 5. Use technology tools and resources for managing and communicating personal/professional information (e.g., finances, schedules, addresses, purchases, correspondence). 6. Evaluate technology-based options, including distance and distributed education, for lifelong learning. 7. Routinely and efficiently use on-line information resources to meet needs for collaboration, research, publications, communications, and productivity. 8. Select and apply technology tools for research, information analysis, problem-solving, and decision-making in content learning. 9. Investigate and apply expert systems, intelligent agents, and simulations in real-world situations. 10. Collaborate with peers, experts, and others to contribute to a content related knowledge base by using technology to compile, synthesize, produce, and disseminate information, models, and other creative works.

18 279 The Disciplines of The new content and standards of technology are derived from various disciplines of technology. There is a range of disciplines of technology just as there are different disciplines of science. One way of illustrating this is in engineering. The discipline of engineering consists of chemical, civil, electrical, genetic, and mechanical engineering. There are various sub-disciplines such as acoustics, aeronautics, avionics, ballistics, bionics, electronics, dynamics, hydraulics, mechanics, pneumatics, optics, robotics, statics and synthetics. Each sub-discipline is a discipline in its own right. We can say that all the engineering disciplines collectively form the discipline of engineering. Design has its own disciplines (architectural, interior, etc.), as does communication or production. Ought the disciplines of technology include only technical fields, or does technology extend to social fields as well? Some scholars limit disciplines of technology to technical fields and isolate technology from other fields of study. Others expand technology to include political, psychological and social fields. This is why it is more accurate to speak of disciplines rather than a discipline. Disciplines depend on what is included and excluded. Charles Richards epitomized proto-theorists of the technology disciplines and initiated a progressive outlook on content that continues today. In 1904, in his now famous essay, "A New Name," he introduced the term "industrial art" to designate an integration of art and industry and to replace an outmoded practice of "manual training." The discipline of industrial arts education (IA) was to be derived from "nothing short of the elements of the industries fundamental to modern civilization," or as he said in Art in Industry, from the graphic, mechanical and textile arts. After expanding on Richards' and Dewey's work, F. Gordon Bonser, Lois Mossman and James Russell at Columbia University defined the discipline of IA for the elementary schools during the 1910s and early 1920s (Foster, 1995). The IA discipline was organized by food, clothing and shelter with the intent being "industrial insight, intelligence and appreciation" (i.e., technological literacy). The trend towards disciplinary content was a direct reaction to prevailing emphases in the high schools on drafting, metals and woods, and the process of deriving content by task analysis. The trend, identified in the 1930s, was toward deriving content from the major industries (communication, power, production and transportation). When William E. Warner introduced A Curriculum to Reflect in 1947, he named technology as the proper subject for industrial arts, rather than industry. Warner and his students envisioned a study of technology, rather than industries such as drafting, electricity, graphics, mechanics, metals and woods. Industrial arts was, in theory, focused on conditions, materials, tools, processes and products of these industries. In practice, it was merely a conglomeration of narrow procedures and projects derived from task analysis. For Warner, the most forward-looking way to organize industrial arts was through a study of five broad

19 280 technological organizers, derived from a socioeconomic analysis: Communication, Construction and Manufacturing, Power and Transportation. The naming of these subdisciplines of technology was a major breakthrough for technology studies. A second major breakthrough came a decade later with Delmar Olson's graduate thesis (as Warner's student) titled and Industrial Arts (1957) and his subsequent book, Industrial Arts and (1963). More than anyone prior to this time and for the following decade, Olson provided an entire K-12+ curriculum and justification for the study of technology. With his book, Olson popularized and elaborated on Warner's work and the discipline of technology. The sub-disciplines of technology were: Construction, Electricity and Electronics (Energy), Industrial Organization and Management, Industrial Production, Power and Transportation, Research and Development, and Services. Communication was embedded in services and distributed across the sub-disciplines. This discipline of technology was oriented toward industrial technology. Following the steps of Warner and Olson, in 1966 Edward Towers, Donald Lux, and Willis Ray published A Rationale and Structure for Industrial Arts Subject Matter, or what they called the Industrial Arts Curriculum Project (IACP). The IACP limited the technology discipline to industrial technology, based on a socioeconomic analysis of classification systems. Industrial technology was divided into construction and manufacturing, which in turn sub-divided into management, personnel and production. These sub-divisions sub-divided and so on (Fig. 8.3). Industrial Industrial Management Industrial Production Industrial Personnel Industrial Material Goods Construction Manufacturing Construction Manufacturing Management Production Personnel Management Production Personnel Constructed Material Goods Manufactured Material Goods Figure 8.3. Industrial Discipline (IACP)

20 281 The IACP provided a logical basis for the selection of content in an industrial technology curriculum. Activities and projects were developed for the attainment of content and understanding of the discipline. The IACP was routinely used in about 2,700-3,000 junior high schools in the US by the late 1970s. Industrial technology, nevertheless, proved to be too limited. For example, communication and transportation were subordinate to construction and manufacturing. DeVore remedied this problem, but created another, in 1964 with his : An Intellectual Discipline, which was somewhat of a revisiting of Warner's 1947 curriculum. For DeVore, the discipline of technology divided into production, transportation and communication. The production area sub-divided into divisions of manufacturing and construction; manufacturing into the categories of fabrication and processing; fabrication into five types and so on. This provided teachers with a basis for valid content selection (Fig. 8.4). DISCIPLINE ELEMENTS Technical Social/Cultural AREAS Production Transportation Communication DIVISION Terrestrial Marine Atmospheric Space SYSTEMS Propulsion Control Structure Guidance Suspension Support CATEGORY Power Transmission Drive TYPE Human Animal Gravity Nuclear Mechanical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Chemical CLASS Internal Conversion External Conversion Direct Conversion ORDER Expansible Chamber Reaction Linear Reciprocating Rotary Figure 8.4. Discipline (DeVore, 1964) Activities and projects were formed with the attainment of content and an understanding of the discipline of technology, or more specifically, the sub-disciplines of communications, production

21 282 and transportation. Creating confusion, he suggested that power and energy were distributed across these three industries. Nonetheless, the primary goal was to develop an understanding of content rather than the development of skills in one or another process or occupational area. The message was this: Use a conceptual analysis of a technology discipline rather than task analysis of industrial work to derive content. The 1960s were an extremely active time for the disciplines of technology (Cochran, 1970). Notable initiatives included The Alberta Plan, specifically Man, Science,, which identified the sub-disciplines of technology to be computer, electronic, graphic communication, mechanical, power transmission technologies. In 1966, this was among the first technology disciplines to include computer technologies as a sub-discipline (Ziel, 1971). Today, the technology discipline for content and standards in the schools is expansive and sweeping, inclusive of most except military technologies. Task Analysis Task analysis quickly rooted in industrial arts and audio-visual education during the 1910s and 1920s. At that time, task analysis was called "trade and job analysis." Trade and job analysis was a technique for taking an inventory of skills and procedures necessary to complete tasks. The inventory was taken for either instruction or for documenting the efficiency of workers. This process was based on the techniques developed in the early 1880s by Frederick W. Taylor, who argued that there was "one best way" to performing any individual task. For instance, there was one best way of shoveling coal, one best way of soldering seams, one best way to type and one best way of ironing clothes. Taylor called his techniques "scientific management." Scientific management required a documentation of the movements and procedures of workers, typically with a stopwatch and often with a movie camera. He called these time and motion studies. The scientific manager reviewed the documentation and recommended to managers how the procedures of workers could be reduced to a one best procedure, supposedly to increase efficiency. A required number of shovels or key strokes per minute were now expected of workers, who would be re-trained to work according to the one best procedures prescribed by the scientific manager. Managers, such as Henry Ford, loved the process. Workers and labor unions despised scientific management. The monitoring software used in workplaces today is a remnant of scientific management, or Taylorism. Taylorism proved to be an inspiration to educators who figured that the one best way of doing job tasks must be the model for teaching industrial procedures and skills. In 1919, Charles Allen published The Instructor, the Man and the Job, effectively a manual for translating the practices of scientific management into instructional planning, or trade and job analysis. Selvidge's How to Teach a Trade reinforced this in Through the 1930s, educators such as

22 283 Frykland and Selvidge managed to orient the entire curriculum of industrial arts curriculum toward trade and job analysis. Eventually in the 1960s, trade and job analysis was reduced to task analysis, still with us today. Generally, task analyses involved an analysis of the following aspects: Duties and Tasks: Performance of specific tasks and duties. Information is collected includes frequency, duration, effort, skill, complexity, equipment and standards. Environment: Related to the physical requirements to perform a job. The work environment may include unpleasant conditions such as offensive odors and temperature extremes. There may also be definite risks such as noxious fumes, radioactive substances or hostile and aggressive people. Technologies: Some duties and tasks are performed using specific technologies. This may include protective clothing or safety equipment. Relationships: Relationships with internal or external people during the task. Requirements: Abilities, dispositions, knowledge and skills required to perform the job. Basically the minimum requirements for adequate performance. Trade and job analysis is designed to identify the work requirements of specific jobs by providing a detailed overview of the tasks that must be performed by workers in a given job. Task analysis, a step in the process of job analysis, is conducted to identify the details of specified tasks, including the required dispositions, knowledge and skills required for successful task performance. There are basically four kinds of task analysis (Lankard-Brown, 1998): 1. Worker-oriented task analyses focus on general human behaviors required of workers in given jobs. 2. Job-oriented task analyses focus on the techniques in performing job tasks. 3. Cognitive task analyses focus on the cognitive components associated with task performance. 4. Emotional task analysis focuses on the emotional elements associated with task performance. Rather than isolating one type of task analysis from the other, high-tech workplaces are demanding that single-focused task analyses give way to combinations that reflect the greater breadth and depth of skills required for high-tech jobs. Worker-oriented task analysis typically involves observations of job tasks performed by workers, interviews with workers, review of tasks by supervisors and surveys to determine the value of tasks and the knowledge and skill requirements. A job-oriented task analysis is a systematic process for collecting information about the highly specific and distinct tasks required for particular jobs. Job-related task analyses rely on workers and supervisors who can explicitly state the step-by-step sequences of tasks and procedures. Cognitive task analysis attempts to

23 284 determine the thought processes workers follow to perform the tasks and identify the knowledge necessary to perform the tasks at various levels (e.g., novice or expert). It is a process used to gather information on behavior in problem-solving situations that highlights the constructive nature of everyday knowledge and social constraints on problem solving. Cognitive task analysis relies on the techniques of observation and interview. Basically, task analysis involves the process of breaking complex behaviors (chain of simple behaviors that follow one another or occur simultaneously) down into their component parts. A comprehensive task analysis involves the use of task inventories, interviews and observations. Simplified task analyses are based on observation and reflective practice. Task analysis has witnessed a revival with the new information technologies. The complexities of software applications and related peripheral interfaces have required that instructors pay close attention to the performance of tasks. In response to the heavy reliance on task analysis, critics have pointed out that the information technology curriculum has become top heavy with procedural knowledge and utilitarianism. Given that applications and peripherals change so rapidly, technology teachers are challenged to teach content that is current. The rapid changes of content (derived from task analysis) in the new technologies have led some educators to promote the teaching of transferable processes over content. In technology studies, task analysis plays an important role as both a technique to derive content for C&I and a teaching method. Task analysis is essential to teachers for organizing procedural knowledge, whether if is cognitive or sensorimotor oriented. Task Analysis (Simplified) 1. Identify a task to be analyzed. 2. If possible, isolate the task from other tasks. 3. Identify the goal of the task. 4. Identify any special technologies necessary for task completion. 5. Identify any special safety considerations. 6. Focus on the essential elements (essences) of the task. 7. List detailed sensorimotor steps of the sequence of the task from start to finish. 8. List detailed cognitive steps of the sequence of the task from start to finish. 9. List detailed emotional steps of the sequence of the task from start to finish. 10. Condense detailed steps into a clear, concise, manageable procedure. 11. Perform the task by following the new procedure and revise as necessary. It is also a teaching method to engage your students in procedural knowledge and career education. Teachers who prioritize the role of task analyses tend to prioritize competencies and capability over content, and instrumentalism over critical empowerment. In other words, doing tasks does not