Thomas Gries Dieter Veit Burkhard Wulfhorst Textile Technology An Introduction 2nd Edition With Contributions by Yves-Simon Gloy, Adolf Graber, Achim Hehl, Melanie Hbrr, Christopher Lenz, Volker Niebel, Nicole Saeger, Andreas Schnabel, Viktoria Schrank, Philipp Schuster, Klaus-Peter Weber HANSER Hanser Publishers, Munich Hanser Publications, Cincinnati
Preface to the Second Edition XVII Preface to the First Edition XVII Preface to the First German Edition XVIII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why Are There Fibers and Yarns? 1 1.1.1 Tenacity and Elongation 2 1.1.2 Surface and Porosity 3 1.1.3 Mechanics of Solid Bodies and Textile Structures 4 1.2 Evolution of Textile Technology 5 1.3 Production Stages 8 1.4 Typical Products Made from Natural and Man-Made Fibers 12 1.5 Yarns 15 1.6 Textiles 15 1.7 Textile Products 18 1.8 Multiscale Model 21 1.9 Importance of the Textile Industry 22 1.10 World Trade with Textiles 25 2 Raw Materials 29 2.1 Natural Fibers 31 2.1.1 Plant Fibers 32 2.1.1.1 Cotton (CO) 32 2.1.1.2 Flax (Linen) (LI) 36 2.1.1.3 Other Bast and Hard Fibers 42
VI Contents 2.1.2 Animal Fibers 43 2.1.2.1 Wool (Sheep's Wool; WO) and Fine Animal Hair 43 2.1.2.2 Silk (Mulberry Silk; SE) 47 2.1.3 Mineral Fibers 49 2.2 Chemical Fibers 50 2.2.1 Manufacturing Processes 50 2.2.2 Chemical Fibers from Natural Polymers 55 2.2.2.1 Viscose Fibers (CV) 57 2.2.2.2 Lyocell Fibers (CLY) 59 2.2.2.3 Cupro Fibers (CUP) 62 2.2.2.4 Acetate Fibers (CA) 63 2.2.3 Chemical Fibers from Synthetic Polymers 66 2.2.3.1 Mechanisms for the Generation of Macromolecules 66 2.2.4 Chemical Fibers from Inorganic Raw Materials 71 2.2.4.1 Glass Fibers (GF) 71 2.2.4.2 Carbon Fibers (CF) 74 2.2.4.3 Metal Fibers (MTF) 76 2.2.5 Further Processing 78 2.2.5.1 Drawing 78 2.2.5.2 Texturing 80 2.2.5.3 Production of Staple Fibers 84 2.3 Examples 86 2.3.1 Jeans 86 2.3.2 Carpet 87 2.3.3 Airbags 89 3 Principles and Machinery for Yarn Production 95 3.1 Cotton Spinning 95 3.1.1 Spinning Preparation Machines 98 3.1.1.1 Bale Opening 98 3.1.1.2 Opening and Cleaning 99 3.1.1.3 Mixing 100 3.1.1.4 Carding 101 3.1.1.5 Draw Frames 103 3.1.1.6 Homogenization of the Sliver 105 3.1.2 Combing Room 105 3.1.2.1 Purpose of Combing 106 3.1.2.2 Combing Machine 107 3.1.3 Ring Spinning Process 109 3.1.3.1 Flyer Spinning 109 3.1.3.2 Ring Spinning 110 3.1.3.3 Compact Spinning 112
VII 3.1.4 Nonconventional Spinning Principles 113 3.1.4.1 OE-Rotor Spinning 114 3.1.4.2 Air-Jet Spinning 116 3.1.4.3 Air False-Twist Wrap-Spinning 119 3.1.4.4 Summary of Other Nonconventional Spinning Methods 120 3.1.4.5 Comparison of the Most Important Nonconventional Spinning Methods 120 3.2 Special Spinning Methods 121 3.2.1 Carded Woolen Spinning 121 3.2.1.1 Carding 122 3.2.1.2 Nonconventional Carded Woolen Spinning 125 3.2.2 Worsted Spinning 126 3.2.2.1 Intersecting Gill Box and Chain Gill Box 128 3.2.3 Mock-Worsted Spinning 129 3.3 Development Trends 130 3.3.1 Machines for Spinning Preparation 130 3.3.2 Production of Staple Fiber Yarns with Defined Properties 131 3.3.3 Production Increase of Ring Spinning Frames 131 3.3.4 Ring/Traveler Combination 131 3.3.5 Sliver Spinning 131 3.3.6 Compact and Condension Spinning 132 3.3.7 Process Control Engineering 132 3.4 Fineness Measurements of Fibers and Yarns 132 3.4.1 Length Numbering 133 3.4.2 Mass/Weight Numbering 133 3.5 Summary of the Measurement Systems 136 3.5.1 Spinning Preparation 136 3.5.2 Combing Room 136 3.5.3 Ring Spinning 136 3.5.4 Rotor Spinning 137 3.6 Examples 137 3.6.1 leans 137 3.6.2 Carpet 138 3.6.3 Airbag 138 4 Principles and Machinery for Production of Woven Fabrics... 141 4.1 Production Principles 141 4.2 Weaving Preparation 143 4.2.1 Winding 143 4.2.2 Twisting 145 4.2.3 Preparation of the Warp Beam 147
VIII Contents 4.2.4 Warping 4.2.5 Section Warping 4.2.6 Sizing 147 147 148 4.3 Construction of Woven Fabrics 149 4.3.1 Definitions of Woven Fabrics 149 4.3.2 Repeating Pattern 149 4.3.3 Floatation 149 4.3.4 Weave Diagram 4.3.5 Weave Symbol 149 150 4.3.6 Basic Weave Patterns 150 4.3.6.1 Plain Weave 150 4.3.6.2 Twill Weave 151 4.3.6.3 Atlas or Satin Weave 151 4.3.7 Special Weaving Techniques 152 4.3.7.1 Cord and Velveteen 152 4.3.7.2 Terry Woven 152 4.3.7.3 Two-Ply Fabric 152 4.4 Design and Principle of Weaving Looms 153 4.4.1 Warp Let-Off Systems 154 4.4.2 Machines with Eccentric Drive 156 4.4.3 Machines with Shaft Drive 156 4.4.4 Jacquard Looms 157 4.4.5 Shuttle Loom 159 4.4.6 Projectile Loom 159 4.4.7 Rapier Loom 160 4.4.8 Jet Loom 161 4.4.9 Multiphase Loom 162 4.4.10 Weft Insertion Speed 162 4.4.11 Open-Reed Weaving 163 4.5 Development Trends 165 4.6 Examples 4.6.1 Jeans 4.6.2 Carpet 4.6.3 Airbag 166 166 167 169 5 Processes and Machines for Knitwear Production 173 5.1 Knitting 175 5.1.1 Design and Structure 175 5.1.2 Loop Formation 177 5.1.2.1 Jacquard Technique 179
IX 5.1.3 Knitting Machines 181 5.1.3.1 Flat-Bed Knitting Machines 181 5.1.3.2 Circular Knitting Machines 182 5.1.3.3 Spacer Knitting Machines 184 5.2 Warp Knitting 186 5.2.1 Design and Structure 186 5.2.2 Warp-Knitting Machines 187 5.2.2.1 Coulier Warp-Knitting Machines 188 5.2.2.2 Warp-Knitting Machines 189 5.2.2.3 Warp-Knitted Spacer Fabrics 191 5.3 Development Trends 192 5.4 Examples 193 5.4.1 Carpets 193 6 Processes and Machines for Nonwovens Production 195 6.1 Basics 195 6.2 Market 196 6.3 Raw Materials 199 6.4 Processes and Machines 200 6.4.1 Processes of Web Formation 201 6.4.1.1 Mechanical Web Formation Processes 201 6.4.1.2 Aerodynamic Web Formation Processes 205 6.4.1.3 Hydrodynamic Web Formation Processes 206 6.4.1.4 Spun-Bonded Nonwovens 207 6.4.1.4.1 Melt-Blown Process 209 6.4.1.4.2 Reifenhauser Process 209 6.4.1.5 Market Overview 209 6.4.2 Processes of Web Consolidation 210 6.4.2.1 Web Bonding by Friction Force 210 6.4.2.1.1 Needle Punching 210 6.4.2.1.2 Hydroentangling 211 6.4.2.2 Thermal Bonding 212 6.4.2.3 Chemical Bonding 213 6.4.2.4 Stitch Bonding 214 6.4.2.5 Market Overview 214 6.4.3 Drying 215 6.4.4 Finishing 216 6.4.4.1 Processes for the Improvement of Textile Drapeability.. 216 6.4.4.2 Processes for Leather Finishing 217 6.4.4.3 Heat-Sealing Coating 217 6.5 Applications 217
7 Braiding Processes and Machines 221 7.1 Classification of Braids 222 7.1.1 Pattern 223 7.2 Braiding Processes 224 7.2.1 Conventional Braiding Processes 224 7.2.1.1 Strand-Forming Braiding Machine 224 7.2.1.2 Lace Braiding Machine 226 7.2.1.3 Package Braiding Machine 226 7.2.2 Processes for the Production of 3-D Braids 227 7.2.2.1 Circular Braiding (Multilayer-Interlock Braiding or Through-the-Thickness Braiding) and Overbraiding... 7.2.2.2 Magnaweave/Omniweave or Four-Step Braiding 228 Processes 229 7.2.2.3 Two-Step Braiding Process 230 7.2.2.4 Further Developments of the Known Processes 231 7.2.2.5 3-D Rotary Braiding 231 7.3 2-D and 3-D Braids 233 7.4 Development Trends 236 8 Noncrimp Fabrics 239 8.1 From Warp-Knit to Multiaxial Fabric 240 8.2 Biaxial Noncrimp Fabrics 242 8.2.1 Structure 242 8.2.2 Principle 243 8.2.3 Stitch Types 244 8.3 Multiaxial Noncrimp Fabrics 244 8.3.1 Structure 245 8.3.2 Principle 245 8.4 Spacer Noncrimp Fabrics 247 8.4.1 Structure 247 8.4.2 Principle 248 8.5 Weft-Knitted NCF 249 8.5.1 Structure 249 8.5.2 Principle 249 8.6 Development Trends 250
XI 9 Textile Finishing 253 9.1 Pretreatment 254 9.1.1 Dry Pretreatment 254 9.1.2 Wet Pretreatment 255 9.1.3 Fiber-Specific Processes 259 9.1.3.1 Cotton 259 9.1.3.2 Wool 261 9.1.3.3 Silk 263 9.2 Drying 263 9.3 Coloration 265 9.3.1 Dyeing 265 9.3.2 Printing 268 9.4 Appret 271 9.4.1 Chemical Appret 272 9.4.2 Mechanical Finishing 272 9.4.3 Thermal Finishing 273 9.5 Coating 273 9.6 Embroidery 275 9.6.1 Standard Embroidery (Sozni Stitch) 275 9.6.2 Chain Stitch Embroidery (Ari Stitch) 276 9.6.3 Tailored Fiber Placement (TFP) 276 9.7 Development Trends 278 9.8 Examples 279 9.8.1 Jeans 279 9.8.2 Carpets 279 9.8.3 Airbags 281 10 Processes and Machines for Clothing Manufacture 283 10.1 Separation 284 10.1.1 Pattern Design 284 10.1.2 Directional Orientation 285 10.1.3 Pattern Orientation 285 10.1.4 Types of Patterns 285 10.1.5 Processes for the Construction and Transfer of Patterns 286 10.1.6 Cutting 286 10.1.7 Marking 287 10.1.8 Work Preparation 287 10.2 Joining Processes 288 10.2.1 Sewing 288
XII Contents 10.2.1.1 Take-Up Lever 292 10.2.1.2 Thread Tightener 292 10.2.1.3 Transport 293 10.2.1.4 Seam Classification 293 10.2.2 Bonding and Setting 297 10.2.3 Welding 297 10.3 Forming 302 10.4 Automation 303 10.5 Development Trends 306 11 Technical Textiles 311 11.1 Definitions 311 11.2 Examples of Technical Textiles 312 11.2.1 Fiber-Reinforced Material (FRM) 312 11.2.1.1 Fiber-Reinforced Plastics 312 11.2.1.2 Conveyor Belts 313 11.2.1.3 Tires 314 11.2.2 Protective Textiles (Mobiltech, Protech) 316 11.2.2.1 Mobility Textiles (Mobiltech) 316 11.2.2.2 Airbags 317 11.2.2.3 Armoring of Automobiles 318 11.2.2.4 Protective Garments for Firefighters 319 11.2.3 Textiles for Civil Engineering (Buildtech) 320 11.2.3.1 Textile-Reinforced Concrete 320 11.2.3.2 Coated Textiles 323 11.2.3.3 Ecological Laboratory House of TU Dresden 324 11.2.4 Geotextiles (Geotech) 324 11.2.5 Medical Textiles (Medtech) 333 11.2.5.1 Hygiene Textiles 333 11.2.5.2 Medical Textiles 334 11.2.5.2.1 Extracorporeal Medical Textiles 335 11.2.5.2.2 Implants (Intracorporeal Textiles) 337 11.3 Development Trends 338 12 Textile Testing 343 12.1 Standards 343 12.2 Testing Chamber Climate 344 12.2.1 Determination of Testing Climate 344 12.3 Fiber Testing 346 12.3.1 Fineness (Linear Density) 346
XIII 12.3.1.1 Importance 346 12.3.1.2 Characteristic Values 346 12.3.1.3 Measuring Principles 347 12.3.2 Fiber Length 349 12.3.2.1 Staple Diagram 349 12.3.2.2 Measuring Methods 349 12.4 Yarn Testing 350 12.4.1 Fineness 350 12.4.2 Twist 351 12.4.2.1 Spun fiber Yarns 351 12.4.2.2 Filament Yarns 351 12.4.2.3 Ply-Yarns 351 12.4.3 Mechanical Properties 352 12.4.3.1 Measurement 352 12.4.4 Evenness 354 12.4.4.1 Measuring Principle 354 12.4.4.2 Diagram 355 12.4.4.3 CV Value 355 12.4.4.4 Normal Spectrogram 357 12.5 Textiles 357 12.5.1 Geometry and Design 358 12.5.1.1 Thickness 358 12.5.1.2 Length and Width 358 12.5.2 Tenacity (Stress) and Elongation (Strain) 359 12.5.3 Behavior against Water 360 12.5.3.1 Water Absorption 360 12.5.3.2 Water-Retention Capability 361 12.5.3.3 Water Repellency 361 12.6 Ready-Made Textiles 361 12.6.1 Surface Changes 362 12.6.1.1 Abrasion Resistance 362 12.6.1.2 Pilling 363 12.6.2 Behavior against Humidity and Water 364 12.6.2.1 Change of Geometric Dimensions 364 12.6.3 Colorfastness 365 12.6.3.1 Definitions 365 12.6.3.2 Gray Scale 366 12.6.3.3 Blue Scale (DIN EN ISO 105-B01 and -B02) 366 12.6.4 Fall and Drapeability 367 12.6.4.1 Measuring Methods 367
XIV Contents 12.7 Physiology of Clothing 12.7.1 Heat Balance of the Human Body 368 12.7.2 Hohenstein Skin Model 370 12.7.3 Thermoregulation Model 372 12.8 Technical Textiles 372 12.8.1 Fibers 372 12.8.2 Yarns 373 12.8.3 Textiles 373 12.8.4 Composites 373 12.9 Development Trends 373 368 13 Disposal and Recycling of Textiles 377 13.1 Circulation of Material in the Textile Industry 378 13.1.1 Life Cycle of a Product 378 13.1.2 Economic Cycle and Waste Law 382 13.2 Material Recycling 383 13.2.1 Fiber Retrieval 383 13.2.2 Clothing 384 13.2.3 Carpets 386 13.2.4 Automotive Textiles 386 13.2.4.1 Seat Covers 386 13.2.4.2 Safety Belts 387 13.3 Processing and Treatment of Reprocessed Fibers 387 13.3.1 Preparation 387 13.3.2 Processing 389 13.4 Thermal Material Recycling 392 13.5 Depolymerization 393 13.6 Thermal Recycling 393 13.7 Environmental Issues in Textile Production 394 13.8 Development Trends 395 13.9 Examples 395 13.9.1 Jeans 395 13.9.2 Carpets 395 13.9.3 Airbags 395 14 Simulation 397 14.1 Simulation with and without Computer 397 14.2 Cost Effectiveness and Validation 398
XV 14.3 Modeling 398 14.3.1 Types of Modeling 399 14.3.2 Expert Systems and Knowledge-Based Models 400 14.4 Analytical Simulation of Machines and Processes 402 14.4.1 Optimizing Machine Settings 403 14.4.2 Optimizing Product Quality 403 14.4.3 Simulating Yarn Production 403 14.4.4 Simulating Fabric Production 406 14.4.5 Simulating Finishing Techniques 408 14.4.6 Practical Advice 409 14.5 Numerical Simulation of Machines and Processes 409 14.5.1 Neural Networks 409 14.5.1.1 Biological Background 410 14.5.1.2 Model 411 14.5.1.3 Applications 412 14.5.1.4 Practical Advice 418 14.5.2 Genetic and Evolutionary Algorithms 418 14.5.2.1 Basics 419 14.5.2.2 Evolutionary Theory 419 14.5.2.3 Genotype and Phenotype 420 14.5.2.4 Mathematical Model 421 14.5.2.5 Applications 421 14.5.3 Fuzzy Logic 423 14.5.3.1 Basics 423 14.5.3.2 Mathematical Model 423 14.5.3.3 Applications 425 14.5.3.4 Practical Advice 426 14.6 Simulation of Yarns and Textile Structures 426 14.6.1 Yarns 426 14.6.2 Textile Structures 427 14.7 Industry 4.0: Control Systems and Cognitive Machines 428 About the Authors 433 Thomas Gries 433 Dieter Veit 433 Burkhard Wulfhorst 434 Coauthors 434 Acknowledgments 435 Index 439