EE143 Fall 2016 Microfabrication Technologies Lecture 3: Lithography Reading: Jaeger, Chap. 2 Prof. Ming C. Wu wu@eecs.berkeley.edu 511 Sutardja Dai Hall (SDH) 1-1 The lithographic process 1-2 1
Photolithographic Process (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Substrate covered with silicon dioxide barrier layer Positive photoresist applied to wafer surface Mask in close proximity to surface Substrate following resist exposure and development Substrate after etching of oxide layer Oxide barrier on surface after resist removal View of substrate with silicon dioxide pattern on the surface 1-3 Photomasks - CAD Layout Composite drawing of the masks for a simple integrated circuit using a four-mask process Drawn with computer layout system Complex state-of-theart CMOS processes may use 25 masks or more 1-4 2
Photo Masks Example of 10X reticle for the metal mask - this particular mask is ten times final size (10 µm minimum feature size - huge!) Used in step-and-repeat operation One mask for each lithography level in process 1-5 Lithographic Process 1-6 3
Printing Techniques Contact printing Proximity printing Projection printing Contact printing damages the mask and the wafer and limits the number of times the mask can be used Proximity printing eliminates damage Projection printing can operate in reduction mode with direct stepon-wafer 1-7 Contact Printing Photo Mask Plate wafer hv photoresist Resolution R < 0.5µm mask plate is easily damaged or accumulates defects 1-8 4
Proximity Printing Light g ~ 20µm Photoresist Wafer Exposed Resolution R λg λ: wavelength of the light source g: g ~ 1µm for visible photons, much smaller for X-ray lithography 1-9 Projection Printing hv lens De-Magnification: nx 10X stepper 4X stepper 1X stepper focal plane wafer P.R. Resolution: 250 nm to < 100 nm (The Deep-UV stepper at Berkeley s Marvell Nanolab, ASML 5500/300, has 250 nm resolution) 1-10 5
Diffraction 1-11 Aerial Images formed by Contact Printing, Proximity Printing and Projection Printing 1-12 6
Light Sources Hg Arc lamps 436(G-line), 405(H-line), 365(I-line) nm Excimer lasers: KrF (248nm) and ArF (193nm) Laser pulsed plasma (13nm, EUV) Source Monitoring Filters can be used to limit exposure wavelengths Intensity uniformity has to be better than several % over the collection area Needs spectral exposure meter for routine calibration due to aging 1-13 Optical Projection Printing Modules Optical System: illumination and lens Resist: exposure, postexposure bake and dissolution Mask: transmission and diffraction Wafer Topography: scattering Alignment: 1-14 7
Optical Stepper scribe line field size increases with future ICs Image field 1 2 wafer Translational motion 1-15 Resolution in Projection Printing f = focal distance d = lens diameter 1. 22 λf d 1-16 8
Resolution Limits in Projection Printing =n.sinθ, where n is the index of refraction 1-17 Depth of Focus (DOF) point 1-18 9
Example of DOF problem Photo mask Field Oxide D Different photo images 1-19 l ( 1) lm @ 0. 6 NA ( 2) DOF Trade-offs in Projection Lithography = ± 2 want small l l ( NA) 2 m want large DOF (1) and (2) require a compromise between l and NA! 1-20 10
Sub-Resolution Exposure: Phase Shift Masks Pattern transfer of two closely spaced lines (a) Conventional mask technology - lines not resolved (b) Lines can be resolved with phase-shift technology 1-21 Immersion Lithography A liquid with index of refraction n > 1 is introduced between the imaging optics and the wafer. Advantages 1) Resolution is improved proportionately to n. For water, the index of refraction at l = 193 nm is 1.44, improving the resolution significantly, from 90 to 64 nm. l m = 0. 6 λ water NA λ water = λ 1. 3 1-22 2) Increased depth of focus at larger features, even those that are printable with dry lithography. 11
Image Quality Metric: Contrast Contrast is also sometimes referred as the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) 1-23 Questions: How does contrast change as a function of feature size? How does contrast change for coherent vs. partially coherent light? 1-24 12
Image Quality metric: Slope of image * simulated aerial image of an isolated line 1-25 The Need for High Contrast Optical image Infinite contrast Finite contrast resist resist resist resist substrate substrate Position x 1-26 13
Resists for Lithography Resists Positive Negative Exposure Sources Light Electron beams X-ray sensitive 1-27 Negative Resist Two Resist Types Composition: Polymer (Molecular Weight (MW) ~65000) Light Sensitive Additive: Promotes Crosslinking Volatile Solvents Light breaks N-N in light sensitive additive => Crosslink Chains Sensitive, hard, Swelling during Develop Positive Resist Composition Polymer (MW~5000) Photoactive Dissolution Inhibitor (20%) Volatile Solvents Inhibitor Looses N2 => Alkali Soluble Acid Develops by etching - No Swelling. 1-28 14
Positive P.R. Mechanism Photons deactivate sensitizer Þ dissolve in developer solution polymer + photosensitizer 1-29 Positive Resist mask hv 100% (linear scale) resist thickness remaining exposed part is removed P.R. EQ Q 1 E exposure 0 ft photon energy dose (log scale) Resist Contrast = log 10 1 Q f Q 0 1-30 15
Negative P.R. Mechanism hv % remaining mask after development QE ft QE 01 photon energy dose hv => cross-linking => insoluble in developer solution. 1-31 Positive vs. Negative Photoresists Positive P.R.: ü higher resolution ü aqueous-based solvents û less sensitive Negative P.R.: ü more sensitive => higher exposure throughput ü relatively tolerant of developing conditions ü better chemical resistance => better mask material ü less expensive û lower resolution û organic-based solvents 1-32 16
Overlay Errors + + alignment mask wafer + + photomask plate Alignment marks from previous masking level 1-33 (1) Thermal Run-in/Run-out errors R = r ( D T m a - D T a ) m si si run-out error wafer radius D T, D Tsi = change of mask and wafer temp. m m a, a si = coefficient of thermal expansion of mask & Si 1-34 17
Rotational / Translational Errors (2) Translational Error Al image p n + (3) Rotational Error referrer 1-35 Overlay implications: Contacts SiO 2 SiO 2 Al n + p-si ideal Alignment error SiO 2 SiO 2 Al n + p-si short, ohmic contact Solution: Design n+ region larger than contact hole D Al SiO 2 SiO 2 n + 1-36 18
Overlay implications: Gate edge Ideal Fox S/D implant n + Electrical short With alignment error poly-gate Solution: Make poly gate longer to overlap the FOX 1-37 Total Overlay Tolerance s = å s 2 2 total i i s i = std. deviation of overlay error for i th masking step s total = std. deviation for total overlay error Layout design-rule specification should be > s total 1-38 19
Standing Waves hv Higher Intensity Lower Intensity Positive Photoresist Faster Development rate Slower Development rate substrate After development Positive Photoresist. substrate 1-39 Standing waves in photoresists x P.R. d Intensity = minimum when Intensity = maximum when x x SiO 2 /Si substrate l = d - m 2n l d - m 4n m = 0, 1, 2,... = m = 1, 3, 5,... n = refractive index of resist 1-40 20
Proximity Scattering 1-41 Approaches for Reducing Substrate Effects Use absorption dyes in photoresist Use anti-reflection coating (ARC) Use multi-layer resist process 1: thin planar layer for high-resolution imaging 2: thin develop-stop layer, used for pattern transfer to 3 3: thick layer of hardened resist 1-42 21
Electron-Beam Lithography 12.3 l = V Angstroms for V in Volts Example: 30 kv e-beam => l = 0.07 Angstroms NA = 0.002 0.005 Resolution < 1 nm But beam current needs to be 10 s of ma for a throughput of more than 10 wafers an hour. 1-43 Types of Ebeam Systems EE143 Ali Javey 1-44 22
Resolution limits in e-beam lithography resolution factors beam quality ( ~1 nm) secondary electrons ( lateral range: few nm) performance records organic resist PMMA ~ 7 nm inorganic resist, b.v. AlF 3 ~ 1-2 nm 1-45 The Proximity Effect 1-46 23
1-47 Richard Feynman 1-48 24
1-49 1-50 25
1-51 1-52 26
Dip Pen Nanolithography Dip-Pen Nanolithography: Transport of molecules to the surface via water meniscus. 1-53 Dip-pen Lithography, Chad Mirkin, NWU 1-54 27
1-55 Patterning of individual Xe atoms on Ni, by Eigler (IBM) 1-56 28