The Shell Bitumen Handbook Sixth edition Principal aufhors Dr Robert N. Hunter, Andy Self and Professor John Read Shell Bitumen
Contents About the principal authors Foreword Acknowledgements xii xiv xv Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Origins 3 1.2 Definition of bitumen 4 1.3 The uses of bitumen 5 1.4 Health, safety and environment 10 1.5 Other binders 1 1 1.6 Terminology 13 References 13 Chapter 2 Manufacture and storage of bitumens 15 2.1 The manufacture of bitumen 15 2.2 Fractional distillation of crude oil 15 2.3 Air blowing of short residues 20 2.4 Delivery, storage and handling temperatures of bitumen 24 References 27 Chapter 3 Handling, health, safety and environmental aspects of bitumens 29 3.1 Handling and safety 29 3.2 Health aspects of bitumen 36 3.3 Bitumen and the environment 42 References 44 Chapter 4 Constitution and structure of bitumens 47 4.1 Bitumen constitution 48 4.2 Bitumen structure 54 4.3 The relationship between bitumen constitution, structure and rheology 57 v
the 4.4 The relationship between broad chemical composition and physical properties during the bitumen life cycle 58 References 62 Chapter 5 Specifying bitumens and checking their quality 65 5.1 Penetration grade, hard penetration grade and viscosity grade bitumens 66 5.2 Polymer modified bitumens (PMBs) 66 5.3 Oxidised bitumens 69 5.4 Hard bitumens 70 5.5 Bitumen quality 70 5.6 The CEN bitumen specification 81 5.7 The SHRP/Superpave bitumen specification 82 References 85 Chapter 6 Routine testing and mechanical properties of bitumens 87 6.1 Standard specification tests for bitumens 87-6.2 Temperature susceptibility penetration index (PI) 92 6.3 Viscosity 93 6.4 The bitumen test data chart 99 of bitumen 105 6.5 Engineering properties 6.6 Cohesion 1 14 References 1 1 6 Chapter 7 Rheology of bitumens 119 7.1 Rheology, deformation and flow 1 20 7.2 The rheology of bitumen 134 References 145 Chapter 8 Polymer modified bitumens and other modified binders 149 8.1 The role of bitumen modifiers in asphalt pavements 150 8.2 The modification of bitumen 153 8.3 Other modified products used for road and industrial applications 166 8.4 Properties of PMBs and related test methods 174 8.5 Manufacture, storage and handling 8.6 Performance of PMBs for road application: of PMBs 177 Shell Cariphalte example 1 79 References 180
Chapter 9 Bitumen emulsions 185 9.1 A brief history of the development of bitumen emulsions 186 9.2 The components of emulsions 187 9.3 The manufacture of bitumen emulsions 193 9.4 Storage and handling of bitumen emulsions 194 9.5 Properties of bitumen emulsions 196 9.6 Modification of bitumen emulsion properties 203 9.7 Classification and specification of bitumen emulsions 208 9.8 Uses of bitumen emulsions 209 9.9 Trends and new developments in the use of bitumen emulsions 214 9.10 Further information on bitumen emulsions 214 References 214 Chapter 10 Aggregates in asphalts 217 10.1 Introduction 21 7 10.2 Origin and type 218 10.3 Aggregate processing 224 10.4 Coarse and fine aggregates 231 10.5 Filler aggregate 250 10.6 Assuring aggregate quality 255 References 256 Chapter 1 1 Choosing asphalts for use in flexible pavement layers 261 11.1 Asphalts used in flexible pavements in Europe 261 11.2 UK pavements 264 11.3 Asphalts used in flexible pavements in the UK 267 1 1.4 Asphalts used in flexible pavements in France 277 1 1.5 Asphalts used in flexible pavements in Germany 282 1 1.6 Asphalts used in flexible pavements in the USA 284 1 1.7 Asphalts used in flexible pavements in India 287 1 1.8 Asphalts used in flexible pavements in China 289 References 290 Chapter 1 2 Design of asphalt mixtures 295 12.1 A very brief history of asphalt mixture design methods 295 12.2 Mixture volumetrics 297 vii
12.3 Grading 304 12.4 Mixture design methods 31 1 References 342 Chapter 1 3 Design of flexible pavements 347 13.1 Introduction 347 13.2 Background to the design of pavements 35 1 13.3 The importance of stiffness 353 1 3.4 The elements of a flexible pavement 356 13.5 Stages involved in pavement design 360 13.6 Pavement designs in the USA 366 13.7 Empirical and analytical pavement design 368 13.8 Analytical pavement design 368 1 3.9 The contribution of Shell Bitumen to the development of pavement design 369 13.10 Example pavement designs using SPDM-PC 372 13.11 A glimpse of the future for pavement design? 374 References 375 Chapter 14 Asphalt production plants 379 14.1 Introduction 379 14.2 Types of mixing plants 380 14.3 Plant capacities 402 14.4 Additive systems 403 14.5 Cold mix plants 404 14.6 Warm mix plants 406 14.7 Asphalt plant control 407 14.8 Sampling 410 References 41 2 Chapter 15 Transport, laying and compaction of asphalts 413 15.1 Transport 413 works 41 3 15.2 Preparatory 15.3 Application of bond coats 415 15.4 Delivery and discharge 417 15.5 Pavers 418 15.6 Laying in adverse weather conditions 423 15.7 Machine laying 424 15.8 Hot-on-hot paving 427 15.9 Hand laying 427 15.10 Layer thickness and surface regularity 429 15.1 1 Joints 430 viii
15.12 Chipping of hot rolled asphalt surface course 434 15.13 Installing gussasphalt 435 437 15.14 Compaction 15.15 Application of grit to surface courses 443 15.16 Opening to traffic 443 15.17 Specification and qualify control 444 References 444 Chapter 16 Laboratory testing of asphalts 447 16.1 Fundamental tests 449 16.2 Simulative tests 459 16.3 Empirical 467 1 6.4 Determination of recovered bitumen properties 470 References 474 Chapter 17 Properties of asphalts 479 17.1 Stiffness of asphalts 479 17.2 Deformation of asphalts 486 1 7.3 Fatigue characteristics of asphalts 491 1 7.4 Failure theories for cracking in asphalt layers 496 References 499 Chapter 1 8 Influence of binder properties on the performance of asphalts 503 18.1 Introduction 503 18.2 The influence of binder properties during construction 508 18.3 The influence of binder properties on the performance of asphalts in service 51 1 References 542 Chapter 19 Adhesion of bitumen and moisture damage in asphalts 549 19.1 Thermodynamic principles of adhesion, cohesion and surface free energy 550 19.2 Factors affecting bitumen-aggregate adhesion 552 19.3 Disbonding mechanisms in asphalts 553 19.4 Methods of measuring and assessing adhesion between bitumen and aggregates and moisture damage 557 19.5 Improving bitumen-aggregate adhesion 567 References 569 ix
Chapter 20 Durability of bitumens and asphalts 573 20.1 Bitumen hardening 574 20.2 Hardening of bitumen during storage, mixing and in service 576 20.3 Bitumen ageing tests 586 References 588 Chapter 21 Surface treatments 591 21.1 Surface dressing 591 21.2 Slurry surfacing/microsurfacing 621 21.3 High friction surfaces 635 21.4 Grouted macadams 636 References 640 Chapter 22 Alternative asphalts 643 22.1 Asphalts produced using foamed bitumen 643 22.2 Warm mix asphalts 651 22.3 Shell Thiopave, a sulfur-based asphalt modifier for enhanced asphalt road applications 654 22.4 Recycling of asphalt pavements 666 22.5 Modification of bitumen by the addition of rubber 671 References 680 Chapter 23 Certification of bitumens and asphalts 687 23.1 The regulatory framework 688 23.2 Standards 691 23.3 Certification for products and systems outside the scope of CEN harmonised standards 694 23.4 Requirements for product certification 697 References 700 Chapter 24 Other important uses of bitumens and asphalts 703 24.1 Bitumen in roofing applications 704 24.2 Bituminous adhesive for use with pavement markers 714 24.3 Airfield pavements 716 24.4 Conventional and high speed railway applications 721 24.5 Bridges 726 24.6 Recreational areas 728 24.7 Motor racing tracks, including Formula 1 tracks 729 X
24.8 Vehicle testing circuits 730 24.9 Hydraulic applications 730 24.10 Coloured surface courses and surface treatments 732 24.1 1 Asphalt kerbs 735 References 735 Appendix 1 Physical constants of bitumens 739 Appendix 2 Conversion factors for viscosities 743 Appendix 3 Blending charts and formulae 744 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Calculation of bitumen film thickness in an asphalt 748 Bitumen product standards used across the world 750 Appendix 6 Asphalt product standards used across the world 754 Appendix 7 Reporting asphalt compositional analysis results 756 Appendix 8 Volumetrics symbols 759 Index 761 yi