105 FoCARS. Digital Repository of Course Materials. Foundation Course For Agricultural Research Service

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1 th 105 FoCARS Foundation Course For Agricultural Research Service Digital Repository of Course Materials Stakeholder analysis Gender Issues in Agricultural Technology Assessment Tech Forecasting -I Technology Forecasting -II Technology Diffusion in Agriculture Sector Participatory Technology Development On Farm Research and Constraint Analysis in Technology Adoption ITK and its Relevance for Sustainability Reforming the Agricultural Extension System in India Modernizing National Agricultural Extension Systems: A Practical Guide for Policy-Makers of Developing Countries

2 Course Coordinators K. Kareemulla and S. Ravichandran Support Team P. Krishnan and P. Namdev

3 TECHNOLOGY DIFFUSION IN AGRICULTURE SECTOR D Thammi Raju 1 The contribution of new technology to economic growth can only be realized when and if the new technology is widely diffused and used. Diffusion itself results from a series of individual decisions to begin using the new technology, decisions which are often the result of a comparison of the uncertain benefits of the new invention with the uncertain costs of adopting it. The diffusion of innovations has been studied from a number of different perspectives: historical, sociological, and economic (including business strategy and marketing), and network theoretical. The choice of approach is often dictated by the use to which the results will be put, but there is no doubt that insights from one perspective can inform the research in another discipline. The sociological and organizational literature is exemplified by Rogers well-known book, Diffusion of Innovations are discussed here under. Technology Flow processes Technology flow involves sequential processes along the science-practice continuum. They are: science, technology generation, technology testing, technology adaptation research, technology integration, dissemination, diffusion and adoption (Roling, 1989). The transfer of technology model (Chambers, 1983) is most common, where breakthroughs developed by researchers are transferred to extension for delivery to users. This is a oneway, linear process and similar to the progressive farmer approach (Roling, 1989). This assumption of a linear, sequential flow of technology has been criticized by many social scientists as it ignores the actual contribution and potential of farmers as generators of technology (Javier, 1989). The model also neglects policy-driven, market-driven, and farmerdriven innovation. 1 Principal Scientist, ESM Division, NAARM 1

4 105 th FOCARS Several other models - such as the technology innovation process (McDermott, 1987); the research-extension process (Bernardo, 1986); the technology generation and delivery process; and the agricultural technology development system - have been developed to describe technology flow. These models have been synthesized in the researchextension interface model (Javier, 1989). The components of this model are: basic research, strategic research, technology generation (applied research), technology testing, technology integration, technology production, technology dissemination (technology transfer) and technology adoption. In this model, basic research refers to research conducted in the basic sciences. Strategic research, which mainly includes research on directly applicable basic knowledge, is taken as the boundary between science and technology. Technology generation, testing, integration, production, dissemination and adoption constitute the technology development process. Technology generation has the same function as applied research, where the knowledge accumulated from basic science research is organized, interpreted, reformulated and translated into technology. Technology testing refers to verifying the results of new technology in the field to obtain early feedback. This is indeed a part of farming systems research (FSR) and on-farm trials. For the purpose of testing, participation of the extension service has been increasingly sought as its widespread networks help in reaching out to farmers, especially in less well endowed regions. One of the most important function of Extension is to bridge gap between research centers and the farmers for introduction of improved methods of agriculture and allied sectors. Extension systems efficiency can be measured (a) by the speed or quickness with which the gap between what is known and what is done by the farmers is bridged. (b)by the number of new practices adopted; and (c) also by the number of farmers and communities that adopt the new practices. While discharging the technology dissemination function by the extension workers, they are often faced with some of the following questions: 1. There is lag between what is known and what is done by most farmers. Why? 2. Where do most farmers get their new ideas? 3. In some villages, people seem to accept new ideas quickly and in others, nearly all the people are slow to take to new things. Why? 2

5 National Academy of Agricultural Research Management 4. Some farmers accept new ideas and put them into practice faster than others. Why? 5. Some new ideas and practices are accepted quickly and with little apparent efforts, while others are accepted only after years of effort put forth by extension agencies. Why? These questions have been focus of considerable research by the behavioural scientists in several countries including India. An understanding of the adoption and diffusion processes shall help the extension agents to accelerate the adoption of the innovations. Innovation An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. Perception is an activity through which an individual becomes aware of objects around oneself and of events taking place. The technologies, practices developed through research are innovations. These may be new varieties of crops and plants, new breeds of livestock, new chemicals and medicines, new technique of doing things etc. Farmers themselves may develop some new practices, which are also innovations. Irrespective of the time period the idea or practice was originally developed, when a person first become aware of it, it is an innovation to that person. Technology A technology is a design for instrumental action that reduces the uncertainty in the cause- effect relationships involved in achieving a desired outcome. Most technologies have two components 1) hardware, consisting of tool that embodies the technology as a material or physical object and 2) software, consisting of the knowledge base for the tool. Diffusion Diffusion is the process by which (1) an innovation is (2) communicated through certain channels (3) over time (4) among the members of a social system. It is a special type of communication, in that the messages are concerned with new ideas. It is this newness of the idea in the message content of communication that gives diffusion its special character. The 3

6 105 th FOCARS diffusion of innovations is essentially a social process in which subjectively perceived information about a new idea is communicated. Adoption A diffusion of innovation with in a social system takes place through its adoption by individual or groups. Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available. Diffusion of Innovations Diffusion of innovations refers to the spread of those innovations through a population, and is simply the result of a host of individual adoption decisions. If individual adoption decisions are, to an extent, predictable, then the larger diffusion process is also predictable. It follows a pattern, and that element of predictability has substantial implications. Therefore the diffusion process can be explained with the terms given by Rogers as the spread of a new idea from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate use of adopters. The diffusion of innovations is essentially a social process in which subjectively perceived information about a new idea is communicated. The process by which an innovation spreads within a social system is called diffusion. An innovation, however, diffuse within a social system through its adoption by individual and groups. Diffusion and adoption are thus closely interrelated even though they are conceptually distinct. It takes time for an innovation to diffuse throughout a social system. It is unrealistic to expect that all farmers in a community will adopt an innovation immediately after its introduction. There is always a variation among the members of a social system in the way they respond to an innovative idea or practice. While there is always few members in a social system who are so innovative that they adopt an innovation almost immediately after they come to know about it, the majority take a long time before accepting the new idea or practice. It is the first few adopters of an innovation who influence the other members of a community to adopt the innovation as they interact with them. 4

7 National Academy of Agricultural Research Management After the innovation is adopted by a few farmers, they influence a few others to adopt it who, in turn, offer a new stimulus to the remaining ones. There is a definite pattern in which innovations diffuse within a community. Attempts to plot the cumulative proportion of adopters of innovation over time within a social system have shown that the resulting curve assumes the form of an S-shaped growth curve. This is called the diffusion curve. Although all diffusion curves tend to be S-shaped, their exact forms vary by particular innovations in specific social systems. The traits which characterize an innovation affect its rate of diffusion within a social system and the resulting diffusion curve. The rate of diffusion of an innovation and the form of its diffusion curve are also influenced by the characteristic features of a social system. When an innovation is first introduced in a social system, a small proportion of farmers adopt it. Through interaction with these first adopters and observing the results of its use on their farms, a few more farmers come to know about the innovation and its usefulness, and eventually adopt it. Over the period of time a large number of farmers become familiar with the innovation through interaction with farmers who have already adopted is reflected in the upward slope of the S-shaped diffusion curve. After the majority of the farmers of the social system have adopted the innovation, 5

8 105 th FOCARS only a few hard-core resisters are left who have not yet adopted the practice, and they upward slope comes to an end. The remaining part of the curve now has a more gentle slope until the entire village adopts the innovation. Adoption process is a mental process through which a farmer passes from the first stage of acquiring knowledge of an innovation to taking a decision to adopt or reject the innovation and confirmation of this decision. The process consists of following 5 stages. 1. Knowledge: The farmer comes to know about the technology either through his personal contact with extension personnel, peers (friends and neighbours) or through exposure to radio, television, magazines etc. At this stage, the farmer is exposed to the existence of the technology and he develops an understanding about it. 2. Persuasion: In the persuasion stage, the farmer develops a favourable (positive) or unfavourable (negative) attitude towards the technology. This depends upon the extent of knowledge he acquires, the credibility of the source through which he gets the information on the technology and finally how he interprets the information. 3. Decision: The farmer may opt to choose either to adopt or reject the technology. Normally he may not adopt it unless he/she tries it on a small scale himself or he observes the trial by other farmers with similar socio-economic status or by extension personnel who organizes demonstrations on the use of technology. Till this stage, it is a mental exercise, which goes on within an individual. 4. Implementation: In this stage, the farmer implements his decision to adopt or reject the technology. He is more actively engaged in seeking information about the source of availability of the technology, procedure to use it and possible solution for the likely problems he may encounter while using the technology. 5. Confirmation: At this stage the farmer seeks additional information as a reinforcement of the decision already made to confirm whether he has taken the right decision. If the additional information is conflicting with the earlier information, he may possibly alter his decision. To what extent the farmer adopts a particular innovation could be measured as the ratio of actual adoption and the potentiality of adoption. It is expressed on a percentage. 6

9 National Academy of Agricultural Research Management Extent of adoption = No. of practices adopted No. of practices recommended x 100 The different technologies were adopted by different categories of farmers to varying levels, as detailed below in Table 1. Table 1: Extent of Adoption of some selected Animal Husbandry Technologies/ Practices Sl.No Selected Technology / Practice Percent 1 Castration of males 93 2 Cross breeding 86 3 Breeding methods 83 4 Artificial Insemination 68 5 Pregnancy diagnosis 49 6 Improved breeding bulls 56 7 Balanced Feeding 31 8 Green fodder feeding Improved disease control Preventive vaccination Following of dry period Colostrum feeding Clean milk production 80 The above values are indicative of the extent of adoption of various technologies across different parts of India. These may vary from area to area. The extent of adoption of various technologies are significantly influenced by important factors such as farmers education, size of the family, herd size, land holding, training received, extension contact, innovative proneness, level of aspiration, knowledge and attitude of farmers and so on. The adoption potential can be reinforced by conduct of shows, film shows, field trips, competitions, melas, exhibitions, training camps, Farmers day/ Kisan melas etc. 7

10 105 th FOCARS Rate of adoption of Innovations Variables determining the rate of adoption Dependent variable that is explained 1. Perceived attributes of innovations Relative advantage Compatibility Complexity Trailability Observability 2. Type of Innovation Decision Optional Collective Authority 3. Communication channels ( mass media, interpersonal) 4. Nature of the social system ( norms, degree of network, interconnectedness etc) 5. Extent of change agents promotion efforts Rate of Adoption of innovations Adopter categories Classification of adopter categories There are different categories of farmers. According to Rogers (1995), the farmers based on their innovativeness can be classified as a) Innovators (Venturesome) b) Early adopters (Respectable) c) Early majority (Deliberate) d) Late majority (Skeptical) e) Laggards (Traditional) All individuals in a social system do not adopt an innovation at the same time. Rather, they adopt in an ordered time sequence, and they may be classified into adopter categories on the basis of when they first begin 8

11 National Academy of Agricultural Research Management using a new idea. In technology transfer programme, it is of great practical utility for the extension workers to identify the individuals who are likely to adopt innovations early and who may lag behind. Adopter categorization on the basis of innovativeness The adoption of an innovation over time follows a normal, bell-shaped curve when plotted over time on frequency basis. The distribution of adopters over time closely approaches normality, and may be explained by the statistical concept of normal curve. The distribution of the adopters may be partitioned into five adopter categories by using the mean and standard deviation. The area lying to the left of the mean time of adoption minus two standard deviations includes 2.5 per cent of the individuals who are the first to adopt an innovation and are known as innovators. The next 13.5 per cent between the mean minus one standard deviation and the mean minus two standard deviations to adopt the new idea are called as early adopters. The next 34 per cent of the adopters between the mean date of adoption and minus one standard deviation are known as early majority. Between the mean and one standard deviation to the right of the mean are located the next 34 per cent to adopt the new idea, the late majority. The last 16 per cent to the right of mean plus one standard deviation are the last to adopt the innovation the laggards. The five-adopter categories are conceptualized as ideal types. 9

12 105 th FOCARS Attributes of innovation 1. Relative Advantage The degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes. The relative advantage may have number of dimensions. For example, if a new technology or practice gives more yield or income or saves time, labour and cost: or has less risk than the existing one; it has more relative advantage. Multiple use of an innovation may be a form of relative advantage. For example, an equipment or material which may be used for a number of activities has more advantage than an equipment or material which can be used for a single purpose. The advantage of location for specific enterprises in specific areas may provide some relative advantage. The innovations which have more relative advantage are likely to be adopted quickly. The degree of relative advantage is often expressed as economic profitability, social prestige, or other benefits. The nature of the innovation determines what specific type of relative advantage (such as economic, social and the like) is important to adopters. 2. Compatibility Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived consistent with the existing values, past experiences and needs of the receivers. An idea that is not compatible with the salient characteristics of a social system will not be adopted so rapidly as an idea that is compatible. Compatibility ensures greater security and less risk to the receiver and makes the new idea more meaningful to him. An innovation may be compatible (1) with socio- cultural values and beliefs (2) with previously introduced ideas or (3) with client needs for innovations. 3. Complexity Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use. Any new idea may be classified on the complexity simplicity continuum. The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is negatively related to its rate of adoption. That means higher the 10

13 National Academy of Agricultural Research Management complexity of the technology; lower the rate of adoption in transfer of technology. However, complexity of an innovation may not deter its adoption, provided it has more relative advantage. Complex technologies, because of their complicated and intricate nature, require consistent training and communication support for the clientele, for their adoption and continued use. 4. Trialability Trialability (divisibility) is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis before deciding to adopt. New ideas that can be tried on the installment plan will generally be adopted more rapidly than innovations that are not divisible. Trialability of an innovation is important for its diffusion for several reasons. The feeling of insecurity associated with the adoption of something new and previously unknown is greatly minimized if it can be tried out on a small scale. The result of the trial, if successful, not only minimizes the risk and insecurity, it also gives the farmer on opportunity to evaluate the innovation in terms of its feasibility and applicability to his own situation. Earlier adopters appear to be more concerned about the trialability of an innovation than later adopters. The trialabiltiy of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption. Transfer of technology is faster with the technologies which can be demonstrable on small scale basis i.e. on trial basis. 5. Observability Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible / observable, demonstrable and communicable to farmers. The results of some ideas are easily observed and communicated to others, whereas some innovations are difficult to describe to others. The observability of an innovation as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption. The visible impact of an innovation facilitates its diffusion in the social system. 11

14 105 th FOCARS The problem of lack of obsevability may, however, be overcome by strengthening extension effort like training, communication etc. which can enlarge one s vision and reasoning. 6. Predictability Predictability has also been perceived as an attribute of innovations. Predictability refers to the degree or certainty of receiving expected benefits from the adoption of an innovation. Subsistence farmers are often very cautious when making adoption decisions, because of consequences It may be generalized that the attributes of relative advantage, compatibility, trialability, observability and predictability of an innovation, as perceived by the members of a social system are positively related to its rate of adoption. The complexity of an innovation as perceived by the members of a social system is negatively related to its rate of adoption. Reasons for adoption/rejection The adoption/rejection of any technology or innovation depends to a great extent on the following elements of technology transfer. 1. Perception of the technology by the farmer under his situation as superior and relatively advantageous than the existing technology or the other way. 2. The farmer s knowledge and attitude towards the technology which in turn depends upon his socio-economic status which include his caste, education, family size, type, herd size, income etc. 3. The quality of extension service and number of extension personnel per thousand farm families and or thousand animals. 4. The extent to which the requisite infrastructure facilities and support services are accessible to the farmers. Improving Rate of Adoption 1. Make sure that the critical elements in technology adoption are the characteristics of technology, socio personal characteristics of the farmer, quality of extension and accessibility of infrastructure facilities, which are appropriate and matching. 2. Make sure that the technology developed addresses the need of the farmers and is definitely superior to the existing technology. The researcher must be in close touch with the user of his/her technology starting from planning the research project to the final evaluation of the project. 12

15 National Academy of Agricultural Research Management 3. Field-testing of technologies is essential for identifying the conditions suitable for technology adoption as well as for modifying it to suit the requirements of the target group. It is worth conducting on farm trials to test and evaluate the technologies. 4. Efforts must be made to educate the farmers to improve their knowledge and skill to change their attitude favourable to the technologies. 5. The knowledge of the farmer which is a pre-requisite to the adoption could be reinforced through a combination of communications media, such as Radio, TV and through demonstrations and group discussions 6. The extension agencies must strive hard to translate the technologies into suitable messages so as to enable the literate farmers to understand the message without any ambiguity. Conflicting messages must be avoided. It is better to identify the technologies suitable for the area and all the extension agencies operating in the area must make similar recommendations. 7. Motivation of the farmers to increase production. 8. Constant interaction between the scientists, extension personnel and farmers to discuss various issues pertaining to technology development, processing, refinement and utilization. 9. Making sure that all the necessary technical inputs in adequate quantities and 10. Efficient livestock marketing network must be created in the area as it motivates the farmers to improve the production. References AEM-102 Communication of Agricultural Innovations (2013), PGDAEM course material, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad , Andhra Pradesh, India Hall B H, Khan B (2002), Adoption of New Technology, InNew Economy Handbook, Available at pdf 13

16 105 th FOCARS Management of Agricultural Research: A training manual. Module 8: Research-extension linkage (1997). Available at: agricultural%20research%20and%20extension%20systems. Rogers E M (1995) Diffusion of Innovations, The Free Press, A Division of Simon and Schuster Inc. New York, NY Thammi Raju D (2005) Livestock Extension (Chapter 16) In Livestock Production and Management- N.S.R. Sastry and C.K.Thomas, 4 th Revised and enlarged edition, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, pp

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