Othello. Scene Commentary ACT I, SCENE I

Transcription

1 Othello Scene Commentary ACT I, SCENE I When the play opens, it is night in Venice. Iago, an ensign (the lowest ranking commissioned officer) in the Venetian army, and Roderigo, a Venetian gentleman, discuss the important incident that has taken place prior to the play s opening. This situation, yet unknown to us, will, by and by, form the context for the entire play. The men speak informally, using epithets, racial slurs, and ambiguous pronouns rather than direct references, to refer to the players. The opening of any story is crucial, so it is particularly interesting that neither character whose actions form the crux of the play, Othello and Desdemona, are mentioned by name in this scene. In withholding the protagonists names, Shakespeare is helping to create a mood. We are meeting the two, but especially Othello, through the eyes of a disgruntled employee and a rejected lover. Our perception is skewed by the verbal slurs heaped on Othello and the objectification of Desdemona. (Note that Iago is making her into one of Brabantio s her father possessions rather than referring to her as an individual with individual liberties.) In addition, by withholding Othello s and Desdemona s names, Shakespeare is also implying the social status of these two individuals. Though Othello is a war hero and Desdemona is the virtuous daughter of a Venetian senator, for some Venetians the fact that Othello is a Moor makes him no better than a beast, and Desdemona s being a woman means that she is merely an extension of her father s property. Note, though, how our impressions of Othello and Desdemona change once we meet them and hear them speak in their own defense in Act I, Scene 3. Shakespeare, a master at creating intricate, yet realistic, relationships, begins to develop the character of Iago, one of his most notorious villains, from the play s very beginning. From Roderigo s initial lines, we get a sense of the relationship between the two men. Obviously, Roderigo is displeased with Iago for withholding information about the secret marriage of Desdemona, the woman Roderigo loves, to Othello. Beyond that, though, the opening lines show us the nature of Roderigo and Iago s relationship it s financial. Roderigo is upset that Iago, who has had [his] purse / As if the strings were [his] (2 3), would withhold such information about Desdemona. In essence, Roderigo has been paying Iago to help him win Desdemona. Their relationship is largely commercial; Iago takes Roderigo s money and, in return, promises to help him get the item he desires. We must wonder, right from the play s opening lines, what kind of a man Iago is. Clearly, he s not above making money at the expense of others and is of questionable integrity in not only his inability to deliver the goods he has promised but also his willingness to use Roderigo, his client, as a pawn. This theme will continue to develop throughout the story. Despite his questionable business practices and ethics, Iago is quick witted and quickly worms his way back into Roderigo s good graces and why not? Roderigo is a pawn, and Iago can easily manipulate him to whatever purpose he intends. Iago quickly offers that no one hates Othello more than he, and for a very good reason: Othello has made Michael Cassio, a Florentine who has spent more time studying warfare than he has experiencing it, his lieutenant rather than Iago, a Venetian of considerable martial skill and well-proven in battle. Iago candidly notes that he will go along with his Moorship s choice (33) and fake his loyalty to Othello, but only until he can bring about Othello s downfall (35 65). In fact, when Iago (partly to remain on Roderigo s payroll) goes so far as to vow his revenge on Othello, we get an overt disclosure of his true nature when he confides in the unassuming Roderigo, I am not what I am (65). In warning Roderigo, Iago warns all of us to be wary of this man of many faces who is not above playing whatever role serves him best at a given time. By this point, we know that Iago is not above manipulating people for his own gain, nor is he to be trusted. He is a firm believer in deception, as well as its more dangerous counterpart, revenge. From this point on, note how many people Iago deludes, due in large part to the sterling reputation he creates for himself. He is perceived by others as a paragon of honesty when, in fact, he is decidedly duplicitous in his nature and perhaps the farthest thing from honesty we find in all of Shakespeare. By disclosing his essence so openly to Roderigo, we learn not only of Iago s true nature but also of Roderigo s. Despite just hearing that his friend is not really the kind of fellow he presents himself to be, Roderigo seems unconcerned with Iago s disclosure. Roderigo is obviously not a deeply intellectual man, nor is he a good judge of character. It is not directly clear, though, whether he is unwilling or unable to understand what Iago is admitting to him or maybe he s a bit of both. For sure, though, Roderigo is easily manipulated and blinded by his unrequited love for Desdemona. Roderigo s simple nature, combined with Iago s opportunistic one, allows Iago to ingratiate himself with Roderigo to the point where Roderigo trusts him completely a relationship that will be crucial to Iago s plan of revenge later in the play. Roderigo s lack of concern for Iago s disclosure also indicates to us that, although he has started the play, he is a character of minor significance. He s far too flat to hold the stage in this great tragedy. He s merely a puppet. By line 67, Iago and Roderigo have reached their destination, Brabantio s house. Brabantio, the nobleman, sleeps inside, apparently unaware that his daughter Desdemona has sneaked out of the house and, against his wishes, married the Moor, Othello. Iago, with an obvious lack of decorum and sensitivity, tries to upset Brabantio by crassly informing him that his daughter Desdemona has run away and secretly married Othello. Iago goads Brabantio, refusing to tell him of the marriage directly, preferring instead an elaborate verbal game filled with metaphors that shows off Iago s quick wit, in contrast to Brabantio s slow wit. Speaking through heavily figurative language, naming neither Othello nor Desdemona, nor mentioning their marriage directly, Iago prolongs Brabantio s pain while at the same time demonstrating his hatred for Othello. He suggests the situation s gravity by remarking that half of Brabantio s soul is now lost (87), due to the evening s events. Iago goes on, trying his best to incite and humiliate Brabantio, while simultaneously disparaging Othello by crudely playing the race card. Othello s social standing is not what upsets Brabantio; it is Othello s race. Iago offers, Even now, now, very now, an old black ram/ Is tupping your white ewe (88 89), introducing the notion of light and dark, white and black, which will come in to contrast as the theme of racism is developed throughout the play. Iago s revelation to Brabantio also introduces two key images that continue to surface throughout the rest of the action. First, according to Iago, there is something bestial and animalistic about Othello ( The old black ram ); he s base and beastly, somehow beneath everyone else in Venice because of his North African heritage. The second key motif that Iago sets up in these lines is the contrast between light and dark. He mentions the black ram and the white ewe, setting up oppositions of light and dark, innocence and evil, purity and corruption that resonate throughout the text. Iago offers another striking animal image when he chastises Brabantio for dismissing the two visitors as drunk, suggesting that while they are wasting precious time fighting to be taken seriously by Brabantio, his daughter is being covered by a Barbary horse (111). Barbary is the land of the Berbers, or

2 Moors (although it may also refer to all the Saracen countries along the north coast of Africa), and by calling Othello a Barbary horse, Iago is again promoting Othello as a dark, savage animal. Iago continues the image, attempting to frighten Brabantio through allusions to the unnatural children that are, at that moment, being sired by this unnatural union. By line 116, Iago realizes that he is striking a nerve with Brabantio and continues to insult him with one of Shakespeare s most vivid, memorable, and animalistic sexual images, the beast with two backs, an Elizabethan euphemism for sexual intercourse. Finally, after Iago and Roderigo have captured Brabantio s attention, Roderigo discloses exactly what brings them to his house. The fair and seemingly virtuous Desdemona has sneaked out of the house and gone by gondola to meet Othello (121). By using descriptions such as a lascivious Moor (126), bold and saucy wrongs (128), and gross revolt (134), Roderigo attempts to stress that the match between Othello and Desdemona is not one to be wished. He paints their union as underhanded, unauthorized, and unacceptable because it reflects Brabantio in a very negative light. (Of course, Roderigo, like Iago, has an ulterior motive: he s in love with Desdemona.) As suggested in this scene (and further developed in Act I, Scene 3), for Desdemona secretly to marry a husband of her choosing, as opposed to one selected for her, was extremely uncharacteristic of women at the time and could only suggest Brabantio s lack of success as a father. In Roderigo s speech ( ), he also plays upon the fact that Othello is an outsider, an issue that underlies the entire play. Roderigo notes that Desdemona has tied her duty, beauty, wit, and fortunes/ In an extravagant and wheeling stranger/ Of here and everywhere ( ). Just as Iago earlier set up Othello as a darkskinned man, darker yet in his intentions (notice how frequently Iago stresses Othello s race and his otherness in talking about him), so too does Roderigo keep the notion going of Othello as an outsider. We know from the play s full title, Othello: The Moor of Venice, that the play centers on someone not originally part of Venetian society. By the time Shakespeare was writing, Moors (along with Jews) had long been banned from England. In Venice, where the play takes place, Moors as a group had also been officially banned from the city. Othello, then, is set apart from the Venetian society not only because of the color of his skin but also because he didn t always live with them. He was a relative newcomer to Venetian circles (see Act I, Scene 3) and had been welcomed because of his military valor. Race issues aside, the fact that Othello was a military man and an outsider to Venetian society made him a less-than desirable candidate for Desdemona. What could Brabantio possibly stand to gain through a union between his daughter and a career military man who possessed little in terms of land, political power, or wealth? At the point where Brabantio finally takes Roderigo and Iago seriously and calls for light so that he can check on Desdemona himself (line 140), Iago makes his excuses and exits. Before leaving though, Iago tells Roderigo that he takes his leave only because it wouldn t do for him to be seen as being publicly against Othello, who had selected him as his ensign. Iago admits to hating Othello (line 154) but reinforces his duplicitous nature by remarking how he will appear loyal and faithful to Othello in public. Iago s chameleon-like quality, though, will soon begin to do insurmountable harm as we see him manifest his dual nature over and over throughout the action. At this point, too, Iago brings in another of the play s key events when he mentions the looming Cyprus wars to which Othello will soon be called (see Act I, Scenes 2 and 3). The war will necessitate Othello reassuming his military persona (as opposed to his newfound role as husband) and will shortly place him in an environment far more dangerous than any battlefield: Cyprus. The revelation that Othello and Desdemona are really married sends Brabantio into new waves of anger. He rails against his daughter and advises all fathers to beware of the deceitful nature of women (lines ), reinforcing what will be a critical theme of the play, characters who present themselves as one persona (the dutiful daughter or loyal friend, for example) and are inwardly someone quite different. Our first encounter with Brabantio reveals three crucial things about his character. First, we find evidence that his relationship with Desdemona is not entirely close and that she is willing to risk his wrath by going against him. We also learn that Brabantio is sensitive to race issues and that although he may have liked Othello once, or may have professional regard for his military skills, he does not see Othello, the Moor, as an appropriate spouse for his daughter. Finally, we learn that although Brabantio did not approve of Roderigo as a suitor for Desdemona, he is not entirely unlike him. Like Roderigo, Brabantio is wealthy, but not all that bright. Brabantio is unaware of what s going on in his own house. We may initially feel a bit empathetic toward Brabantio because of the seemingly poor way he has been treated by his daughter, but the empathy quickly fades. Before long, we begin to see Brabantio as deserving his plight. He clearly views his daughter as a piece of property no more or less than a vase, rug, or piece of art and her sneaking away is equated with robbery. Brabantio is missing a valuable possession, the realization of which sends him into a fury. Because of his seemingly irrational and reactionary nature, we must also wonder what catalytic purpose Brabantio will serve. Certainly an irate father will add fuel to the fire in this great tragedy. ACT I, SCENE II This scene provides us with our first glimpse of Othello. We hear of him in Act I, Scene 1, but in this scene we hear from him for the first time. As the scene unfolds, a difference emerges between the Othello heard about in Scene 1 and the Othello here. This discrepancy is again taken up in Scene 3 when Othello speaks before the council. This scene (as does all of Act I) takes place on the same night as the scene prior. Iago, of whom we know enough to be suspicious, has just come from Brabantio s house and reports to Othello how he has overheard someone (unnamed, but presumably Roderigo or perhaps Brabantio) speaking disparagingly of Othello. Iago uses many of the same techniques he used in the preceding scene to work his way into Othello s favor. Just as he did with Roderigo and Brabantio, Iago speaks convincingly and thereby wins Othello s confidence. And just as he did in Scene 1, Iago falsely presents himself as loyal and steadfast, in this case by recounting how furious he was made by the blackguard s disparaging remarks toward his general (1 10). For the unsuspecting Othello, Iago comes off as devoted and faithful, worried about his General s reputation more than his own. As the scene continues, Iago provides necessary exposition, informing Othello (and, by extension, the audience) of how Brabantio has power enough in the Venetian senate either to demand that Othello and Desdemona divorce or to bring the full measure of the law to rest on Othello s head. Othello, unmoved by Iago s remarks, merely comments that whatever punishment Brabantio has planned for him, his services to Venice s government will surely outweigh them (17 24). This remark, calmly delivered, tells us much about Othello. He is so confident in his standing with the Venetian council that he need not worry whether they will side with Brabantio over him. Clearly, he does not see himself as an outsider, as suggested by the action of this scene. Rather, Othello sees himself as a crucial cog in the workings of Venetian society. His telling remarks here also show us that his bravery in battle manifests itself in the civilian sphere. He is calm and reasonable unlike the fury-driven men that we have met up to this point and readily assures Iago that his exploits in battle are equal in merit to the wealth and power of Brabantio. Shakespeare continues to expound on Othello s character, having the General confess to Iago that his love for Desdemona is deep and that he wouldn t trade being her husband for anything (24 28). Bravery and passion are paramount in this man, and we see that he is not at all the base, animalistic, greedy, and self-serving man the opening scene led us to believe. Once again, we come into contact with the theme of things not being as they appear perhaps Othello isn t a monster after all!

3 As Cassio enters, Iago tries one last time to establish himself as a loyal ally, concerned only for the General s welfare, by again reminding him that Brabantio and his search party are out to punish him. Undaunted, Othello offers that his parts, title, and his perfect soul shall show him in his true, gallant light (32) prophetic words that will ring ironic later in the play when the hero begins his descent into darkness. Cassio, Othello s trusted Lieutenant, approaches and explains that because of late-breaking developments regarding the Cyprian wars, the council has been deliberating action, and the Duke of Venice requires Othello s immediate presence. Cassio mentions that the council has called repeatedly for Othello, but having been unable to find him in this time of crisis, they ve sent out three search parties to find him. This last disclosure from Cassio is especially interesting, given that Othello is a supreme military mind, yet on the day of most need, he s busy tending to personal, rather than political, matters. This disclosure hints that the realms of public duty and private desire may come in to play in this story and causes us to take pause and wonder about Othello s bravado. Will the senate really side with him? Should he be so sure? Our instinct is to side with Othello, yet we must wonder why, on this day of great military movement, Othello has been oblivious to it all. Instead of focusing on the unfolding political events, he is focusing on personal ones. Cassio, unaware of Othello s secret marriage, asks Iago where the General has been. Iago, knowing Othello has married the potentially wealthy Desdemona, alludes to that wealth in taunting Cassio and disparaging Othello. Iago uses a market analogy that suggests Othello has boarded a land carack (a large trading ship, generally associated with great wealth) and that if his transaction proves lawful, he ll be rich for the rest of his days. The baffled Cassio asks for clarification and learns, in much simpler terms, Othello has married. Notice, though, that Iago uses a motif dear to him the market. We have already seen in Scene 1 that Iago is motivated by money and has no trouble taking money from others. It is not surprising that Iago would see Othello s marriage as an act of commerce. As the play unfolds, we should note the other instances of the market motif. When Othello briefly returns to get Cassio, Desdemona s father intercepts the three men. When Brabantio s party draws weapons on Othello, Othello attempts to soothe the old man by noting that his age alone commands attention and that there is no need for swords. Despite comments offered in Scene 1, Othello s respect toward Brabantio and acknowledgment of his status goes a long way to establish Othello s superior nature. Through his actions, Othello is combating the negative image of him set forth in Scene 1 and is establishing himself as civilized and refined rather than a marginalized outsider a mere Moor! as Brabantio and the others would have us believe. Ignoring Othello s wellchosen and honorific comment, Brabantio asks the foul thief (62) what he has done with his daughter, adding that Othello must certainly have cast a magic spell on Desdemona or she would never have left her father for Othello s sooty bosom (70). This reference to black magic and Othello s connection to outside forces helps Brabantio to advance his view of Othello as an outsider, as well as bring in the concept of Christianity versus paganism, which forms one of the play s undercurrents. Brabantio goes on at length about Othello s perceived sorcery (62 81), working to justify Desdemona s disobedience to himself and his peers. By doing so, he sets up a means of saving his reputation, which he believes to have been attacked through his daughter s actions. Although Desdemona s secret marriage may seem perfectly reasonable to us today, for Brabantio the marriage promises a lifetime of shame. He fears being seen by his peers as a man unable to control his daughter, who at the time would have been considered a legal possession. By explaining Desdemona s actions as being induced by sorcery, Brabantio attempts to explain the situation in the only way that makes sense for him. In his mind, no other reason exists that the daughter of an upstanding and prominent Venetian citizen would run off and secretly marry especially when the groom is a Moor. In this scene, Brabantio shows how little he understands Desdemona, preferring to construct elaborate and serious charges against Othello, rather than accept that his daughter may have disobeyed him and acted under her own free will. In line 80, Brabantio again calls for Othello s imprisonment, only to have Othello voluntarily offer to appear in front of the Duke, whom he was already on his way to see. Brabantio, who up to this point had been intent on finding his daughter, inadvertently reveals his ignorance of the military developments and wonders how the Duke could be in council without his having heard of it. (Clearly Brabantio isn t as central to the governing structure as he would like to believe.) Sure that his fellow statesmen will share his horror at the marriage of Othello and Desdemona, Brabantio and followers head off to the council. This section of Scene 2 is especially interesting in that the action is again in direct contrast with the idea that Brabantio is attempting to forward. Brabantio, as we now know, believes himself to be far above Othello. Yet only Othello knows that the council is meeting. In addition, Brabantio s sudden shift of attention, from Desdemona to the council, suggests great impotence on his part. He is doubly ineffectual in that his role as senator has been made meaningless by the council s meeting without him, just as his role as father has been made meaningless by his daughter s actions. This scene, although short, nicely sets up the idea of just how much people really know in this story. Othello has been with Desdemona during the one evening that his services are really needed by the Venetian council. He has been focusing on personal issues rather than state issues and is taken off guard by the news that the council is looking for him. Similarly, Brabantio has been so busy looking for the thief who stole his goods that he, too, is oblivious to the fact that the council has been deliberating without him. Cassio, on the other hand, has been focusing on the impending war, and although he is Othello s lieutenant, he was not informed of the General s impending marriage. Interestingly, Iago is the character who seems best informed of the circumstances at hand, political and domestic. Note his ability, too, to remain in Othello s good graces. Just as he worked his way back into Roderigo s favor in Act I, Scene 1, he chooses his words carefully and presents himself as one of Othello s most loyal followers until, of course, Othello s back is turned (50 51). ACT I, SCENE III Act I, Scene 3 brings our initial attention to the political situation of Venice and presents us with the first of three trial scenes that figure prominently in Othello. (The others can be found in Act II, Scene 3 and Act V, Scene 1.) Up to this point, the play has been concerned primarily with domestic (or household) affairs, but now the Venetian council has larger issues to tend to. Here we begin to see Shakespeare juxtaposing the struggles of the domestic sphere with the struggles of the political sphere, two seemingly distant worlds that, upon closer examination, have much in common. In many ways, the smaller domestic sphere, which will be explored throughout the bulk of the play, is in essence a microcosm, reflecting on a smaller scale many of the same struggles faced by the country. Although the war set up in this scene will be over by the beginning of the next, the issues brought up by the war who to trust, overt tactics and covert ambushes, strategy and alliances, what seems and what is will adumbrate throughout the domestic sphere in the following acts as we watch the war move from an international to a personal level.

4 That the council is holding a strategy session in the middle of the night is indicative of the urgency of the situation. The Duke is skeptical of the situation due to conflicting reports about the military strength of their opponents, the Turks (sometimes called Ottomites), in the wars over Cyprus. One report indicates one hundred and seven galleys (large war ships) while another indicates a strength of one hundred forty, and yet another report claims the Turkish fleet to be two hundred galleys strong. Regardless of the inconsistency in scouting reports, one thing is undeniable: A Turkish fleet is headed to the Venetian colony of Cyprus. The country is vying for power and is determined to exercise its military strength in order to achieve its goals. The military struggle unfolding before us, though, is not an isolated thing. We can see the very same struggle happening in the domestic sphere as well. Iago s quest for revenge is, in essence, his desire to triumph over a perceived enemy. Similarly, Brabantio s desire for justice would allow him to triumph over Othello, just as Venice wishes to triumph over the Turks. The battles that rage in the scenes following require military-like vigilance. In short, a man like Othello, skilled in warfare, ought to be able to see through the attack that Iago is formulating against him. His inability to see through his adversaries in the domestic sphere, however, has puzzled critics for generations. Othello is brought low by his inability to translate what he knows to be true in one aspect of his life to what he knows to be true in another. Perhaps this poor domestic judgement is, in fact, his fatal flaw. As the Duke attempts to gather his missing senators around him for advisement, Brabantio, Othello, Cassio, Iago, Roderigo, and the others of the party enter the senate chambers. The Duke turns his attentions first toward Othello, welcoming him with the honorable title of Valiant Othello and noting how his services are needed immediately (48 49). As an almost afterthought, the Duke turns to Brabantio, offering, I did not see you. Welcome gentle signior (50). This small omission goes a long way to explain not just the Duke, but the Venetians at large, as well as Brabantio and Othello. Clearly the Duke sees Othello as a valorous man just the type of man the country needs to turn to in this time of crisis. Othello is trusted by the Duke and the council to lead the army successfully in war against the Turks. By dismissing Brabantio, the Duke is showing where his allegiance lies with a Moor, an outsider, rather than with one of his own countrymen. The Duke s preference for Othello will be seen again and again in this scene, showing how Othello was embraced by the Venetian society, despite what Brabantio s words and actions up to this point have suggested. As the council scene unfolds, Shakespeare brings back into focus two key themes that we ve seen before: the objectification of Desdemona and the idea of sorcery. Brabantio is quick to disclose that he is before the council not because of the country s pressing business, but because he is so completely overwhelmed with grief, a characteristically un-manly comment, suggesting Brabantio s impotence, as well as the idea that he may not be especially learned in the ways of the government to which he belongs. When Brabantio shrieks, My daughter! O, my daughter! (59), the whole council assumes that something tragic must have happened and is quick to question whether she is dead (59). Again in a decidedly melodramatic flair, playing the room for pity, Brabantio recounts his story, taking careful pains to make it sound as devastating and tragic as possible. In lines 60 64, Brabantio drives home the twin themes of sorcery and Desdemona s second-class property status when he claims she has been abused, stol n from me, and corrupted/ By spells and medicines because there is no way she would have behaved in the manner she did unless witchcraft was involved. At this point we are introduced to another of the play s key themes: justice. The Duke, not realizing the full extent of the situation, attempts to soothe Brabantio, assuring him that whoever has placed such a spell on Desdemona will be punished accordingly. He promises, in fact, that Brabantio himself shall be able to pronounce the sentence from the bloody book of law (67) and shall be able to make it as severe as he believes the situation warrants. The Duke, a seemingly noble man, ends his promise of justice claiming that even if his very own son committed this crime, Brabantio would be able to levy whatever punishment he wanted. Brabantio, now feeling as if the law is entirely and irrevocably on his side, names Othello as the perpetrator of the crime. What Brabantio doesn t expect, however, is the Duke s impending reversal, which, as we shall see, reveals a great deal about how fickle justice can be. Upon hearing Brabantio s accusation, the Duke asks Othello for an explanation. Othello, in turn, addresses the Duke and the rest of the council and makes his first real public address of the play. We ve heard him speak informally before, but now is our first occasion to hear him speak in a formal setting, and the resulting speech is impressive. His speeches to the council (lines and ) reveal him to be anything but the base and brute monster that Iago and Brabantio would have us believe he is. Othello wastes no time in winning the senators to his side through carefully chosen rhetorical strategies (such as appealing to their egos and emotions). Othello spends a considerable amount of time setting up the picture of himself that he wants the council to see, noting with an air of self-deprecation, that he is rude... in my speech, / And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace (81 82). Besides setting up an air of modesty (appropriate when one is speaking in front of the city s most powerful citizens who have the power to end his life at their will), Othello also adds a touch of irony to the situation. Of all the people we meet in the council s chambers, he is the one least likely to be rough in his speech. In fact, as we soon learn, his ability to use words well is exactly what has won Desdemona, not witchcraft, as Brabantio would like to think. Through Othello s words, we learn much about his nature. He establishes himself as a warrior, a man who has been in constant battle from the age of seven until just nine months prior to the play s action. He professes to know little of the world, save for that which he knows from being on the battlefield. Rhetorically speaking, Othello has begun to create an escape route for himself. Knowing how much the Venetians respect military prowess, especially on this night before the Turks wage war on Cyprus, he notes that if he speaks poorly (or more literally, talks himself into a corner), his military lifestyle is to blame. He has spent his life in battle, therefore he is (in his estimation, anyway) unable to speak with the grace and ease of the learned Venetian gentlemen. Like a great orator, Othello is countering any possible objections to what he might say even before he has said it, tacitly biasing his listeners from the start. All he promises to deliver is a true, unadorned tale of how he won Desdemona (90 93). Brabantio, still angry and wanting justice, reverses his direction and speaks in defense of his daughter, the selfsame daughter that he disowned earlier in the scene. He shows a glimmer of his fatherly ignorance when he paints Desdemona as a passive and modest maiden who blushes at the least provocation (94 96) and who, without unnatural intervention, could never fall in love with what she feared to look on! (98). In this scene, much like Scene 1, Brabantio comes off as a man ruled by emotion (a trait characteristically associated with women), rather than reason (perceived as an exemplary male trait). Through Brabantio s haphazard reversal in defense of Desdemona, we also see that he is a man of questionable judgment, which thereby encourages us to question the validity of his claims. Are his accusations of witchcraft simply the ravings of a man attempting to create excuses for his poor parenting, as a father who couldn t rule his daughter was, in effect, a failure? The Duke, who once promised Brabantio whatever penalty he desired for the theft of Desdemona, now backs away from his initial promise. He begins to turn away from Brabantio s side, claiming that suspicion is not proof (107) and that without more evidence he doesn t have too much of a case. The Duke s reversal of opinion serves a few distinct and important purposes. First, in his defense of Othello, he places the General an outsider above Brabantio, one of his noted countrymen. Second, the reversal makes us scrutinize the Duke a bit more. Was he too hasty in his initial agreement with Brabantio? Has he

5 been hasty in other regards as well perhaps in promoting Othello? We are left to question whether the Duke is, in fact, a good leader. Finally, his actions in this scene add another layer to the military/domestic parallel introduced earlier. As the leader of Venice, the Duke s questionable judgment reflects upon him. Similarly, when the play s focus shifts to the domestic sphere, we will see Othello exercising some of the same poor judgment, helping this scene to take on additional significance. Othello, in a bold action, suggests the council send for Desdemona herself to find out whether he cast a spell on her ( ), and so Iago is sent to the Sagittary, an inn where the couple was staying. What is so interesting about Othello s sending for Desdemona is that in so doing, we realize Othello is the only one who thinks to ask Desdemona herself what happened. Brabantio s and the council s willingness to overlook Desdemona in this whole affair speaks to their inability to see women on par with men. Culturally, at this time women were supposed to be silent. Women who did speak out often had reputations as liars and viragos (shrewish or quarrelsome women), both bad things for the daughter of a nobleman. Additionally, calling for Desdemona shows Othello s confidence in what Desdemona will say. He is willing to stake his reputation even his life on the word of this woman. Considering Desdemona will likely be put under great pressure and will have to face her father in a room of the city s most powerful lawmakers, Othello is confident in her ability to handle herself and not change her story in order to soothe those around her. On another level, Othello s calling for Desdemona to testify to what has happened is significant because it creates a very positive and trusting image of the two lovers early in their marriage. This trust will play a larger and larger role as the play continues. While the council awaits Desdemona s arrival, Othello provides crucial dramatic exposition, telling the story of how he fell in love with Desdemona and she with him ( ). In the longest uninterrupted speech of the play, Othello explains what life has been like since he came to Venice. We learn more about his life, as well as his character, as he notes how Brabantio, the man now accusing him of bewitching his daughter, was formerly very fond of him. Othello often regaled him with tales of chance and daring ranging from his first boyish adventures to his trials of adulthood. Aware of Desdemona s love for his stories, Othello one day drew from Desdemona a declaration of her feelings, and in return, promised to re-tell her his life s story. His tales often brought her to tears and in her pity she wished she hadn t heard his tales, but then also wished heaven had made [for] her such a man (163). Clearly, Desdemona isn t the innocent Brabantio would have us believe. She s a woman with desires. Moreover, she is a woman willing to take action in order to satisfy them. As Othello revealed, Desdemona mentioned that if he would only teach another to woo her with such stories, that she should certainly fall in love, essentially giving him the go ahead to court her, despite her awareness of the racial bias of Venetian society. Othello s tale helps us to understand what is underlying his relationship with Desdemona, foundation that becomes more and more crucial as the play unfolds. From what Othello says, his understanding of love is not, perhaps, what it should be, nor is Desdemona s. Although little doubt exists that they love each other, the reason for that love is suspect. Does Desdemona love Othello for the places he has been and the stories he tells rather than for the man he has become? Is she in love with an image of the valiant Moor? Does Othello love Desdemona because she pities him for all he has endured in his life? Does he love her because her adoration feeds his ego? Just what inspires their love is unclear, and Othello s story, although beautiful, suggests that his relationship with Desdemona may not be based on the most solid reasoning. A counter argument may be waged, however, suggesting that what brought Desdemona and Othello together is no less valid than what brought most couples of this time together perhaps even more so. Most marriages of noblewomen were arranged and based on which suitor would make the strongest political ally, rather than which man had the strongest romantic attachment to her. In a case such as this, wouldn t it be better for Desdemona to marry someone for whom she has some feelings, even if they might not necessarily be completely mature, rather than marry someone for whom she feels nothing? After Othello finishes his story, Desdemona enters, escorted by Iago. The Duke, clearly swayed by Othello s earlier story, counsels Brabantio to withdraw his allegations and make the best of the situation at hand (173). Brabantio, unwilling to give up his suit, suggests that Desdemona speak and calls destruction onto himself if Desdemona proves his charges false. As if attempting to bully his daughter, before letting her speak, he questions her as to Where most you owe obedience (180). Everything Brabantio has said up to this point suggests that he is confident Desdemona will support his claim, but clearly he doesn t possess a great degree of understanding of his daughter. Desdemona speaks, beginning in line 180. Her maturity and sophistication take us somewhat aback. She is not meek and passive, as women were expected to be. Rather, she is strong and forceful, showing great intelligence and courage. Without hesitation, Desdemona remarks that she has a divided duty (181), deftly sidestepping Brabantio s attempts to corner her. Displaying a great deal of rhetorical skill (perceived as a decidedly masculine trait), Desdemona cleverly remarks how she is indebted and bound to Brabantio for her life up to that point, as well as to Othello with whom she will spend the rest of her years. In a move of great strength, she appeals to her father, reasoning that just as her mother left her grandfather to marry Brabantio, so too must she leave him to marry Othello. Desdemona s appearance before the court strongly suggests that she is not a stereotypical woman bound by cultural constraints. She fails to exhibit meekness and silence; she refuses to be overwrought with emotion when placed on display. She is, in fact, a strong woman with whom we are to empathize. This empathy, in fact, is necessary if we are to be moved by the play s later acts. The Duke, ever the peacekeeper, attempts to help the couple back into Brabantio s good graces after Brabantio publicly disowns his daughter. He explains that in situations where there is no remedy, it is senseless to suffer needlessly ( ). The only thing to be gained by holding a grudge against Othello and Desdemona is more needless heartache ( ). Brabantio, unwilling to see things that way, refuses the Duke s line of reasoning. Instead, Brabantio reinforces his hatred of Othello, disparaging him as the Turk of Cyprus (210). The Duke s speech on suffering introduces another thread that can be followed throughout the play. Needless suffering, here belonging to Brabantio but later belonging to Othello and Desdemona, as well as Roderigo and other minor characters, runs under the play s surface, helping to add to the tragic appeal of the story. After his ineffectual attempt to reconcile Brabantio with his daughter, the Duke turns his attentions once again to the affairs of state, relaying the evening s military events to Othello. He notes that of all the men, Othello is the one most qualified to lead in this war. The governor of Cyprus is an able man, but public opinion decrees that Othello is the man for the job. The Duke then informs Othello that he must replace his new fortunes his life as a newlywed (227) with a more dangerous and risky undertaking. In this ironic juxtaposition, the Duke suggests that domestic issues pale in comparison to affairs of State. Once again, we see how little the Duke knows of the domestic sphere. The war, in fact, turns out to be brief, and the Turks are handily defeated. The issues of the private realm, however, turn out to be the most dangerous. Fighting a known and avowed enemy is easy, but fighting an enemy that moves stealthily within private circles an enemy that may even exist within one s self is a decidedly more risky endeavor. Despite having been married only hours earlier, Othello is quick to come to his country s aid, showing his integrity, as well as his importance to the Venetian military. All he asks in return is lodging and care for his wife ( ). Desdemona, in a display of great personal strength and independence, remarks that she loves Othello dearly ( ), and rather than endure his absence, she would go with him. Othello agrees with Desdemona, but is careful to establish that his wish is not motivated by libidinous desires. In assuring the council that if Desdemona were with him his attention would still be firmly focused on his military duty, not his personal pleasure, Othello presents himself as a man duty-bound to carry out his official role. He also appears as a man of great strength

6 and fortitude, ready, willing, and able to overcome physical desire in light of professional obligation. Othello comes off as clear-headed and forthright, qualities that will come into question during Act III. As the council breaks up for the evening, important things happen. First, the Duke, in an attempt to convince Brabantio that he is overreacting to the situation, notes that Othello has really done nothing to warrant Brabantio s anger. In his parting words he announces, Your son-in-law is far more fair than black (290), playing yet again upon the racial undertones set up earlier in the play. Unpersuaded by the Duke s opinion, however, Brabantio is quick to get one last attack on Othello, ominously declaring, Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see: / She has deceived her father, and may thee ( ), words that form an undercurrent for the action to come and will come to haunt Othello in Acts IV and V as his suspicion of Desdemona s infidelity grows. After the senators adjourn, Othello announces that he must leave. He entrusts Desdemona s care to Iago and his wife, Emilia, with the instructions that they all come to him at the earliest safe opportunity. With an attentive eye on the time (showing his mindfulness of his military duty), Othello leaves with Desdemona so that they may enjoy their last hour together. Othello s willingness to trust his bride to Iago is telling. Clearly, he trusts Iago and, despite passing him over for promotion, believes him to be an honorable man. Othello s opinion of Iago is positive, allowing Iago the in that he needs to manipulate Othello and extract his revenge. Roderigo and Iago are left alone. Dismayed at what he has just witnessed, Roderigo wonders what he is to do about his love for Desdemona. Iago, with an unconcerned air, replies in a matter-of-fact way that Roderigo should go to bed and sleep (304). Roderigo, though, thinks that perhaps drowning himself is the only fitting remedy to his torment at losing Desdemona (305). Irked by his friend s melancholic nature (showing again he is not at all a true friend), Iago deems him a silly gentleman (307). Iago continues to rail against Roderigo, claiming that in all of his twenty-eight years, he never found a woman worth such rash action. In fact, he would rather change places with a baboon than drown himself for want of a woman s love ( ). This passage is important because it helps set up Iago and his attitude toward women. When compared with Othello s comments about love earlier in this scene, we see that the two men operate from entirely different places. For Othello, to love is honorable and brings the fulfillment of a lifetime. For Iago, to love (specifically romantically, although Iago s actions also suggest that perhaps he means platonically as well) is to show weakness. To lose sense of one s self is to risk one s safety and one s life. In Iago s mind, women are clearly subservient to men and never should a man compromise himself on behalf of a woman. Iago is, in essence, already set up as a foil to Othello, countering the Moor s chivalric nature with Iago s base and animalistic one. (Note the irony that the man who called Othello an animal is, in fact, himself far more animalistic.) Roderigo, further demonstrating his complete dependence on Iago, continues to question what he should do. Lines are dominated by Iago, who uses every opportunity he can find to manipulate Roderigo, letting Roderigo think he is securing Iago s help, when really Iago is further setting up Roderigo as a fool. Iago s speeches also reinforce his negative view of women, stressing how they are inconstant, lascivious, and shallow, throwing men away once they ve taken from them whatever they want (generally, physical pleasure and material goods). Love, according to Iago, is merely a lust of the blood and a permission of the will ( ). Rather than Roderigo drowning himself, Iago thinks Roderigo ought to relax; they are friends, and Iago will work in Roderigo s favor. Bringing us back to the market metaphor introduced in Scene 1, Iago tells Roderigo over and over that instead of committing suicide, he ought to put money in his purse or, quite literally, sell everything he has and turn his assets into cash. Between commands for Roderigo to liquidate his holdings, Iago claims that Desdemona, by virtue of her womanhood, will not be with Othello long (again signaling Iago s disparaging idea of women). She will soon tire of him, and then Roderigo can step in and win her. In an attempt to demonstrate his loyalty to Roderigo, Iago offers again that he hates Othello (368) and that helping Roderigo into Desdemona s bed is a win-win situation: Roderigo gets Desdemona, and Iago gets to see Othello humiliated by losing his wife. Iago s lack of concern for anyone other than himself comes out nicely here. In this passage, we get a good look at the petty and small-minded nature of this important Shakespearean villain. He exhibits a blatant disregard for people s feelings and reputations, with his chameleon-like personality hard at work. The signals are clear: Iago is not a man to be trusted. Our awareness of this fact heightens our interaction with the tragedy. We are privy to the full picture, while other characters fall blindly into Iago s trap. We are unable to help, compounding the tragedy unfolding before us. After Roderigo exits, rashly heading off to sell his land rather than drown himself, Iago, left alone on the stage, remarks, Thus do I ever make my fool my purse (385). His use of ever suggests that he has done this before and is a hardened cheater. He continues to remark on Roderigo s gullability, saying that the only reasons he d spend any time at all with a fool like Roderigo are sport and profit (388). Iago introduces yet again the fact that he hates Othello, but this time follows it up with a reason we have not yet heard. He hates Othello because there is speculation Othello has had an affair with Iago s wife, Emilia ( ). Iago admits he has no proof of the tryst, but claims suspicion Will do as if for surety (392). In reasoning out his plan, Iago notes how Othello holds him in high esteem (392), thereby holding him in a position wherein he can do the greatest damage. Iago is already aware of how he may abuse Othello s naturally good nature and use it to extract his revenge. In lines that end the scene ( ), Iago sounds out the plan that will encompass the rest of the action. He will ruin Cassio, the proper man (394), and Othello as well, by claiming that Cassio is having an affair with Desdemona. Iago reinforces the idea of things seeming one way when they are really another (a key theme throughout the rest of the play), noting, The Moor is of a free and open nature / [And] thinks men honest that but seem to be so ( ). Iago closes out the first act with the devilish prophesy that Hell and night / Must bring this monstrous birth to the world s light ( ), suggesting a few very potent ideas. First, his plan is engendered, or conceived. How ironic that Iago would use a term that can also be handily applied to what happens when two people join together and create a child. Engendering is, in fact, the issue that will provide the crux for the action to come. Secondly, Iago s remarks are telling in that by invoking images of hell and night (or darkness), Iago is linking himself with sorcery and devilish work. Honest Iago is, in effect, far more of a sorcerer than Othello. If there is magic at work in the following acts, it has been called upon by Iago, its primary servant. Finally, this passage helps us plumb the depths of Iago s immorality. By claiming, Hell and night / Must bring this monstrous birth to the world s light, Iago is, in fact, incriminating himself. The monstrous birth is the birth of his plan. Iago knows that his plan is evil, and in what is perhaps an even more frightening turn of events, he doesn t care at all. The destruction he will cause is, in effect, inevitable. Although we may want to find him morally culpable, he clearly does not function under the same moral precepts that we do and will remain morally untouched by the havoc he is about to unleash. ACT II, SCENE I