Oxyura leucocephala -- (Scopoli, 1769) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ANSERIFORMES -- ANATIDAE Common names: White-headed Duck; Malvasía

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1 Oxyura leucocephala -- (Scopoli, 1769) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ANSERIFORMES -- ANATIDAE Common names: White-headed Duck; Malvasía Assessment Information European Red List Status EN -- Endangered, (IUCN version 3.1) European Red List Assessment Year published: 2015 Date assessed: Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Endangered (EN) EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) This species has a small, rapidly declining population in Europe and is therefore classified as Endangered. Within the EU27 the small population is fluctuating or stable and it is therefore listed as Vulnerable. Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Armenia; Azerbaijan; Bulgaria; Cyprus; Georgia; Greece; Hungary; Romania; Russian Federation; Spain; Turkey; Ukraine Origin Uncertain: Croatia; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Montenegro; Serbia Vagrant: Albania; Austria; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Denmark; France; Germany; Italy; Malta; Netherlands; Poland; Portugal; Slovakia; Slovenia; Switzerland Population The European population is estimated at pairs, which equates to 500-1,200 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at pairs, which equates to mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. In Europe the population size is estimated to be decreasing by at least 20% in 12 years (two generations). In the EU27 the population size is estimated to be stable. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend Habitats and Ecology This species breeds in small, shallow, fresh to brackish wetlands with dense submerged vegetation and extensive reedbeds (Tucker and Heath 1994). Breeding begins in April with broods hatching mostly in June and July (Carboneras and Kirwan 2015). Nests are a platform of reed stems and leaves sparsely lined with down and are built in dense vegetation, on the ground or over water, often in old nests of other waterbirds. They are sometimes sited within gull and tern colonies, and birds will specially constructed nest-boxes. Clutches are usually four to nine white eggs and females may re-lay if the first clutch is lost. As a diving duck, its diet consists of midge larvae and other aquatic invertebrates. Seeds and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants are also taken (Carboneras and Kirwan 2015). Most birds are migratory, wintering in Europe from further east in Russia and Kazakhstan. Breeding in Europe is mostly concentrated in Spain where the population is resident but also occurs in Russia and Turkey (Tucker and Heath 1994).

2 Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Artificial/Aquatic - Salt Exploitation Sites suitable breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable non-breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes major breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools major breeding Altitude Occasional altitudinal limits Threats The greatest long-term threat to the species's survival is thought to be competition and introgressive hybridisation (i.e. genetic swamping) with the non-native North American Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) (Green and Hughes 1996, Green and Hughes 2001, Muñoz-Fuentes et al. 2007). Both male Ruddy Ducks and male hybrids are socially dominant over male White-headed Ducks during courtship (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996). The threat from the Ruddy Duck is extremely serious, given that, if allowed to proceed beyond a certain point, the Ruddy Duck's spread across the Palearctic will become unstoppable, especially if the species was allowed to become established in White-headed Duck range-states such as Turkey or the Russian Federation, where the huge size and area of the wetlands and their infrequent monitoring would make control impossible (Hughes et al. 2006). Approximately 50% of breeding habitat has been drained during the 20th century. Remaining sites are vulnerable to drainage, filling, pollution and disturbance. Water abstraction for agriculture and other s has affected water levels in many important sites throughout the range. The genetic diversity of the western European population is low (Muñoz-Fuentez et al. 2005) owing to its having suffered a bottleneck in the 1970s and early 1980s when only a few dozen individuals remained in the wild (Johnsgard and Carbonell 1996, Muñoz-Fuentez et al. 2005). This may lessen the adaptive potential of the population, rendering it less able to withstand environmental change (Muñoz-Fuentez et al. 2005). Further threats include drowning in fishing-nets, hunting and ingestion of lead shot (Green et al. 1996, J. Criado in litt. 1999, Mateo et al. 2001, A.A. Khan, A. Parveen, and R. Yasmeen in litt. 2005). The species is hunted illegally in most of the range states but this has not been quantified, apart from in Turkey. Hunting and egg collection are the most likely reason for extinction in some countries (Hughes et al. 2006). Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Agriculture & Agro-industry aquaculture farming Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Very Rapid High Impact Ecosystem conversion; Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources effects: (subsistence/small scale) [harvest]) Gathering terrestrial plants effects - species is not the target) Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (intentional - species is the target) ; Species mortality; Species disturbance Ongoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact Species mortality

3 Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals effects - species is not the target) ; Species mortality Invasive and other Ruddy Duck (Oxyura problematic jamaicensis) Ongoing Minority (<50%) Rapid Medium Impact species, genes & diseases Hybridisation; Competition Natural system modifications Natural system modifications Pollution Pollution Abstraction of ground water (unknown ) Abstraction of surface water (agricultural ) Agricultural & forestry effluents (type unknown/ unrecorded) Industrial & military effluents (type unknown/ unrecorded) Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Rapid High Impact ; Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success Conservation Conservation Actions Underway CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. The species is legally protected in many range countries and occurs in a number of protected areas. A conservation programme in Spain has resulted in a significant population increase (J. Criado in litt. 1999). Ruddy Ducks (O. jamaicensis) are controlled in 15 western Palearctic countries, including Spain, Portugal and France. A programme was started in 2005 to eradicate the U.K. population of Ruddy Ducks and by 2009, over 6,200 ducks had been culled, resulting in a suggested decrease in the U.K. population of almost 90% (Henderson 2009). Reintroduction schemes are operational in Majorca and Italy (B. Hughes in litt. 1999, A. J. Green in litt. 2012). A European action plan was published in 2006 (Hughes et al. 2006). Sport hunting has been banned on two primary wintering lakes (Burdur Gölü and Yarisli Gölü) in Turkey where hunting from speedboats was threatening the White-headed Duck (Green et al. 1996). Conservation Actions Proposed Survey breeding and wintering grounds and migration sites. Enforce strict protection from hunting. Conduct comprehensive winter monitoring and tracking studies to improve knowledge of migration routes and phenology (Li and Mundkur 1993). Protect and manage key sites and their catchments, including monitoring of hydrology and water pollution (M.A. Tabur in litt. 2005). Reduce disturbance by fisheries. Ensure legislative protection for this species in all range states (Li and Mundkur 1993). Alleviate hunting pressure and ban lead shot throughout its range. Prevent drowning in fishing nets by regulating fisheries. Promote policies to control O. jamaicensis and hybrids. Bibliography Carboneras, C. and Kirwan, G.M White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from on 27 April 2015).

4 Bibliography Green, A.J., Fox, A.D., Hilton, G., Hughes, B., Yarar, M. and Salathé, T Threats to Burdur Lake ecosystem Turkey and its waterbirds, particularly the White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala. Biological Conservation 76: Green, A.J. and Hughes, B Action plan for the White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala). In: Heredia, B., Rose, L. and Painter, M. (ed.), Globally threatened birds in Europe: action plans, pp Council of Europe, and BirdLife International, Strasbourg. Green, A.J. and Hughes, B White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala. In: D.B. Parkin (ed.), BWP Update: the journal of birds of the Western Palearctic, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp Oxford University Press, Oxford. Henderson, I Progress of the Ruddy Duck eradication programme. British Birds 102(12): Hughes, B., Robinson, J.A., Green, A.J., Li, Z.W.D. and Mundkur, T International single species action plan for the conservation of the White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala. CMS/AEWA, Bonn, Germany. Johnsgard, P.A. and Carbonell, M Ruddy Ducks and Other Stifftails: Their Behavior and Biology. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, USA. Li, Z. and Mundkur, T Results of the Asian Waterbird Census Wetlands International Global Series 15, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Mateo, R., Green, A.J., Jeske, C.W., Urios, V., and Gerique, C. (2001). Lead poisoning in the globally threatened marbled teal and white headed duck in Spain. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20(12): Munoz-Fuentes, V., Green, A.J., Negro, J.J. and Sorenson, M.D Population structure and loss of genetic diversity in the endangered white-headed duck, Oxyura leucocephala. Conservation Genetics 6(6): Munoz-Fuentes, V., Vila, C., Green, A.J., Negro, J.J. and Sorenson, M.D Hybridization between white-headed ducks and introduced ruddy ducks in Spain. Molecular Ecology 16(3): Snow, D.W. and Perrins, C.M The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3, BirdLife International, Cambridge. Map (see overleaf)

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