Chapter 5. Contemporary Terracotta Manufacture in West Bengal: An Ethnographic Approach

Transcription

1 Chapter 5 Contemporary Terracotta Manufacture in West Bengal: An Ethnographic Approach 110

2 The work involves ethnographic study among the terracotta manufacturing and using communities from 17 villages of seven districts of West Bengal. The ethnography is done with fourfold aims first, an emphasis is given on process of terracotta manufacture, second the documentation of forms that are produced, third the ways of marketing them and finally the use of terracotta materials. Following map shows the distribution of the villages under study (Fig. 5.1). 111

3 Fig. 5.1 Map of West Bengal showing contemporary terracotta manufacturing and using villages under study 112

4 Among the 17 villages 12 villages are both terracotta manufacturers and users and five villages are only users. This chapter aims at understanding the terracotta manufacturing process and terracotta forms, hence, it is restricted to the study of 12 villages where terracotta is regularly manufactured. The detail of the sample of terracotta manufacturers is given in Table no Table no. 5.1 Terracotta manufacturing villages under study District Block Municipality Gram Panchayat Village name North 24 pgs Deganga Berachampa - II Devalaya Deganga Sohai- Shetpur Shetpur-Palpara Barasat - I Duttapukur - II Chaltaberia South 24 pgs Baruipur Madarat Atghara-Palpara Bhangar - I Sanksahar Sanksahar- Nischintapur Purba Medinipur Sahid Matangini Kakharda Yashomantapur Raghunathpur - I Tarangakhali Bankura Taldangra Panchmura Panchmura Sonamukhi Sonamukhi- Satyapirtala Birbhum Bolpur- Sriniketan Ruppur Surul Kankalitala Adityapur Bolpur Makrampur Each of these villages has terracotta manufacturing communities. It is important to understand the village population and the extent of terracotta manufacturing among them. Here it may be noted that since, in most of the villages pottery and terracotta are manufactured in parallel by same families it is important to understand different numerical dimension of pottery manufacture along with terracotta. In order to do so 113

5 pottery and terracotta manufacture in comparison to the total population of the village is done. Following table and diagram shows the extent of such activities in the villages. 114

6 Table no. 5.2 Number of pottery and terracotta making families with respect to the total number of families in the villages District Village Name Total no. of Families North 24 pgs South 24 pgs Purba Medinipu r Pottery Making Families % with respect to Total Families of the Village Families involved in Terracotta Making Devalaya Shetpur-Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara-Palpara Sanksahar Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Bankura Panchmura Sonamukhi Satyapirtala Birbhum Surul Adityapur Makrampur Total % of Terracotta Maker with respect to Total no. of Families 115

7 Devalaya Shetpur- Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara- Palpara Sanksahar- Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Panchmura Sonamukhi- Satyapirtala Surul Adityapur Makrampur Total no. of families Pottery making families Families involved in Terracotta making North 24 pgs South 24 pgs Purba Medinipur Bankura Birbhum Fig. 5.2 The extent of pottery and terracotta manufacture in the villages 116

8 Table no. 5.2 and Fig. 5.2 show that people with traditional pottery and terracotta making occupations are considerably less with respect to total number of families in the villages. It is seen that only 21.49% of the families in the studied villages are involved in pottery manufacture. Furthermore, only 11.33% of the families are terracotta makers, even in the villages where large number of people belongs to the caste Kumor. An interesting exception is Chaltaberia where 83.19% of people are involved in terracotta making and 94.83% are involved in pottery making. This is possible because Chaltaberia is a cluster of pottery and terracotta making activities. The families are small entrepreneurs and are connected with regional, national and international markets. Two villages of South 24 Parganas, Atghara-Palpara and Sanksahar-Nischintapur, where each of the pottery making families manufacture terracotta items indicate the regional demands of terracotta. Villages of Bankura also show the similar trend. Nature of Labour Force in Terracotta Manufacture: During the fieldwork terracotta manufacture is seen as a family based occupation. In open-ended interviews, research participants emphasize on the involvement of each of the family members in terracotta manufacture. From these findings, certain questions arise, a) whether terracotta manufacture is family based? b) To what extent family members participate in this work? c) Whether this reflects community sentiment of preserving the tradition of terracotta manufacture? The last question involves a detailed investigation on the nature of tradition perseverance. However, before going to that part, it is important to see the nature of labour force in terracotta manufacture. 117

9 Table no. 5.3 Patterns of labour force in terracotta manufacturing including the family and hired labours District Village Name Terracotta Making Families North 24 pgs South 24 pgs Purba Medinip ur No. of Males Engaged No. of Females Engaged Total Family Labour Force Hiered Labour Total Labour Force % Hiered Labour Force Devalaya Shetpur-Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara Palpara Sanksahar- Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Bankura Panchmura Sonamukhi Satyapirtala Birbhum Surul Adityapur Makrampur Total

10 Fig. 5.3 Pattern of labour force among terracotta manufacturing families 119

11 Table no. 5.3 and Fig. 5.3 show that percentage of hired labour force is considerably low (only 20.99% of the total labour force). Places like Devalaya, Yashomantapur and Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala terracotta makers do not employ outside labour force at all. Participation of women in a variety of stages of terracotta manufacture further shows that terracotta manufacture is primarily a family based occupation. However, in other places, especially where the hired labour force is involved in transporting and preparing the soil and transporting the finished goods, they are usually not involved in actual manufacture of terracotta. Therefore, there is a conscious attempt to reduce the outside labours. This shows the tendency of preserving caste occupation. Children s involvement is an important phenomenon. Involving children of the family in many phases of the terracotta manufacture is seen. Additionally, during the fieldwork, on several occasions it is seen that children are given the freedom to experiment with their own forms of clay modelling. Following table gives an overview of the extent of children s involvement in terracotta manufacturing. 120

12 Table no. 5.4 Percentage of children s participation in terracotta manufacturing District Village Name Total Family Labour Force in Terracotta Children's Involvement in Terracotta % of Children in Terracotta North 24 Devalaya pgs Shetpur Palpara Chaltaberia South 24 Atghara pgs Palpara Sanksahar Nischintapur Purba Yashomantap Medinipur ur Tarangakhali Bankura Panchmura Sonamukhi Satyapirtala Birbhum Surul Adityapur Makrampur Total

13 Devalaya Shetpur- Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara- Palpara Sanksahar- Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Panchmura Sonamukhi- Satyapirtala Surul Adityapur Makrampur Total family labour force in terracotta Children's involvement in terracotta North 24 pgs South 24 pgs Purba Medinipur Bankura Birbhum Fig. 5.4 Family labour force and children s participation in pottery and terracotta manufacturing 122

14 Table no. 5.4 and Fig. 5.4 indicate the fact that a significant percentage of total family labour force is children. Initially they are given easier duties, like removing impurities from the clay, or helping at various stages of manufacture. There is conscious attempt to make them learn, as apart from their regular educational activities at schools they are asked for helping their family. Furthermore, since, clay modelling is fun filled activity for a child; their wilful engagement is also seen during the work. 123

15 Contemporary Terracotta Forms and their Distributions: During the fieldwork, several terracotta forms are found. There is a huge variation in types reported from different villages. Following is a detailed list of types found in studied villages. Devalaya: Items include toys like pots, bowls, unun (oven), spoon, bucket, jar, mortar and pestle (shil nora), ghats small and simplistic male and female dolls, toy carts, horse riders served as toy carts. Shetpur-Palpara: The most common types they prepare are large and small flower vases, Egyptian pots, Pradip, lamp shades, musical instruments such as tabla, models of legends and idols of different Hindu deities, other aesthetic objects like Rajasthani models. Some of the special types are Terracotta tables, chairs, terracotta tiles or plaques depicting a variety of images, frame of bed etc. These are only made on the basis of demand. Chaltaberia: Flower vases, candle stands, Pradip, plaques or tiles depicting various images, Hindu gods and goddesses especially Ganesha, Durga, small and large decorative female figures, incense stand, horse, elephant and many other decorative objects. All are mould made, no use of wheel. Atghara-Palpara: Different terracotta ghats (dwar ghat, debi ghat, baran chhoba), Pradip, Pradip stand (Dipasan), Dhunuchi, Sahasra jhar, Bastu pujar ghat. 124

16 Sanksahar-Nischintapur: Different types of terracotta ghats (debi ghat, dwar ghat/darko) used in ritual and religious purposes, Kolke, Pradip, Sahasra jhar, oil burning pot used in ritual purposes (Telporar Patro), Pradip stand, small pots of different shapes used in ritual purposes or as toys for children. Yashomantapur: Terrracotta figures of different local gods and goddeses (Jarasandha, Raktabati, Shitala), terracotta Tulsi mancha, pradip, ghats. Tarangakhali: Ghats, marriage ghats, chalnara, male and female dolls. Panchmura: Horse and elephant both simplistic and decorated, Manasa chali/bari, Manasa ghat, tiles or plaques depicting various images, figurines of Hindu gods and goddesses, mother and child and other male and female figurines. Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala: Elephants, Horses, Manasa chali/bari, Manasa ghat, marriage ghats, Tusu khola, dolls, different musical instruments like Dugi, Khol, Madal, Tasa, flower vases, Multiple Pradip in a single stand. Surul: Diffent types of masks and large flower vases and some other decorative objects. Adityapur: Different types of decorative objects like small figurines including mother and child, Ganesha in different postures, pen stand, ashtray, bells, different female figurines in different postures, small clay dolls used in aesthetic purposes. 125

17 Makrampur: Pradip, ghats, Bell, Dhunuchi, and Pen stand. Some of the important terracotta forms are given from Fig. 5.6 to

18 Table no. 5.5 Contemporary terracotta forms and their distribution in the studied areas Sl. No Forms No. of villages % to the total village Names of the villages 1 Horse and Elephant (simplistic) Panchmura, Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala 2 Horse and Elephant (decorated) 3 25 Chaltaberia, Panchmura, Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala 3 Manasa Chali/Bari Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, Panchmura 4 Manasa Ghat Panchmura, Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala 5 Idols Hindu Gods and Goddesses Shetpur-Palpara, Chaltaberia, Adityapur, Panchmura 6 Figurines of Local Gods and Panchmura, Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, Atghara, Yashomantapur Goddesses 7 Mother Figure Panchmura, Adityapur 8 Mother and Child Panchmura, Adityapur 9 Decorative Male and Female Chaltaberia, Panchmura Models including Erotic 10 Models of Legends Shetpur-Palpara 11 Male and Female Dolls Panchmura, Adityapur, Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, Devalaya 12 Ghats 6 50 Tarangakhali, Makrampur, Sanksahar-Nischintapur, Atghara- Palpara, Devalaya, Yashomantapur 13 Marriage Ghats Panchmura, Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, Tarangakhali, Makrampur, Yashomantapur 14 Decorative Pots Panchmura, Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, Tarangakhali, Makrampur, 15 Perforated Ritualistic Pot Sanksahar-Nischintapur, Atghara-Palpara 16 Local Musical Instruments Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala 17 Other Musical Instruments Shetpur-Palpara 18 Bell Adityapur, Makrampur 19 Tusu Khola Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala 20 Flower Vase 3 25 Sonamukhi-Satyapirtalam, Shetpur-Palpara, Chaltaberia, 21 Tulsi Mancha Yashomantapur, 127

19 Sl. No Forms No. of villages % to the total village Names of the villages 22 Pradip (Simplistic) Sanksahar-Nischintapur, Shetpur-Palpara, Atghara-Palpara, Yashomantapur 23 Multiple Pradip Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, Makrampur 24 Pradip Stand Sanksahar-Nischintapur, Atghara-Palpara 25 Decorative Pradip Sethpur-Palpara, Chaltaberia 26 Ornaments Panchmura 27 Rajasthani Models Shetpur-Palpara, Chaltaberia 28 Terracotta Furnitures Shetpur-Palpara 29 Incense Stand Chaltaberia, Sanksahar-Nischintapur 30 Egyptian Pots Shetpur-Palpara 31 Dhunuchi Makrampur, Atghara-Palpara, 32 Toy Cart Devalaya 33 Toys Devalaya 34 Masks Sururl 35 Plaques or Tiles Shetpur-Palpara, Chaltaberia, Panchmura 36 Other Decorative Objects Surul, Chaltabaria, Sethpur-Palpara, Panchmura, Adityapur, Sanksahar-Nischintapur, Makrampur, Total no. of villages

20 Horse and Elephant (simplistic) Horse and Elephant (decorated) Manasa Chali/Bari Manasa Ghat Idols Hindu Gods and Goddesses Figurines of Local Gods and Goddesses Mother Figure Mother and Child Decorative Male and Female Models including Erotic Models of Legends Male and Female Dolls Ghats Marriage Ghats Decorative Pots Perforated Ritualistic Pot Local Musical Instruments Other Musical Instruments Bell Tusu Khola Flower Vase Tulsi Mancha Pradip (Simplistic) Multiple Pradip Pradip Stand Decorative Pradip Ornaments Rajasthani Models Terracotta Furnitures Incense Stand Egyptian Pots Dhunuchi Toy Cart Toys Masks Plaques or Tiles Other Decorative Objects No. of villages Fig. 5.5 Contemporary terracotta forms and their distribution in the studied area 129

21 Fig. 5.6 Simplistic horse and elephant from Panchmura Fig. 5.7 Decorative horse and elephant from Panchmura Fig. 5.8 Manasa chali/bari from Panchmura Fig. 5.9 Manasa ghat from Bishnupur terracotta market Fig God Krishna in front and a mould of Durga in the back from Chaltaberia Fig Local female and deities Raktabati Jarasandha from Yashomantapur 130

22 Fig Contemporary archaic mother figure from local market at South Srirampur Fig Mother and child from Adityapur Fig Decorative female model from Chalaberia Fig Models of legends from Bolpur market 131

23 Fig Dolls from Bolpur fair (Poushmela) Fig Ghat from Sanksahar- Nischintapur Fig Marriage ghat from Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala Fig Decorative pot and flower vase from Panchmura 132

24 Fig Perforated pot (sahasra jhar) from Sanksahar-Nischintapur Fig Tulsi mancha from Yashomantapur Fig Pradip (simplistic) from Sanksahar-Nischintapur Fig Multiple pradip (decorative) from Bishnupur terracotta market Fig Pradip stand from Sanksahar-Nischintapur 133

25 Fig Rajasthani models from Chaltaberia Fig Stool (mora) from Shetpur-Palpara Fig Egyptian pot from Shetpur- Palpara Fig Musical instrument (baya) from Shetpur Palpara Fig Bell from Makrampur 134

26 Fig Dhunuchi from Makrampur Fig Toy cart and other toys from Devalaya Fig Masks from Surul Fig Plaques from Shetpur-Palpara Fig Ornaments from Bishnupur terracotta market Fig Ganesha from Chaltaberia 135

27 Techniques of Terracotta Manufacture: Terracotta manufacturing is one of the important crafts of West Bengal. As already been noted profuse availability of suitable clay and its plastic, easy-moulding nature might be one of the reasons for which terracotta holds a significant position in West Bengal s art and craft. Clay is also considered as sacred as it is symbolically related to fertility cult and mother earth. The terracotta manufacture requires certain step-by-step process. A detailed study on the process of terracotta manufacture has been done. In the following section these stages are discussed. Source of Clay: The clay used for terracotta making in most of the villages is locally known as Entel mati. The soil is sticky and clayey in nature with considerably less sand content and has more plasticity. Being compact it can bear more heat. In Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, Makrampur and Adityapur Doaansh mati is used. In Do-aansh mati the sand and mud content of the soil is almost equal. So there is no need to add sand in case of this soil. The clay is purchased by the terracotta makers from agents who collect it from the bank of the local rivers or from nearby places where desired clay is available in ample amount. Vidyadhari in case of Shetpur-Palpara; from the land of co-operatives or from their own land in case of Panchmura; Canning, a near by place, in Chaltaberia; nearby farming grounds in case of Devalaya and in case of Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala from the bank of the nearby river named Shali. In Makrampur and Adityapur, clay is bought from farming fields which are located on the bank of the river Ajay; in case of Sankshahor-Nischintapur, Tarangakhali, Atghara-Palpara, clay is brought from the nearby farming field, they buy clay from the farmers at the rate of Rs.1/- per small basket. However, they have to pay about Rs. 300/- to the owner who allows them to bring the soil. In most cases the clay is purchased: 1 big basket (baro chubri) Rs. 6-7/- (Swetpur, Devalaya, Atghara-Palpara), 1 tractor or 1 bullock cart Rs. 300/- (in Panchmura). 1 bullock cart that is 100 taal (lump) of clay is Rs. 100/- i.e. 1 taal (lump) of clay is Rs. 1/- (Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala). 1 van of clay i.e small baskets (jhuri) is Rs /- (in Shankshahor-Nischintapur). Rs. 1/- per small basket (jhuri) in case of Tarangakhali, Atghara-Palpara. One tractor clay is bought in Rs /- (in Makrampur and Adityapur). 1 truck of clay is bought in Rs. 6000/- (in 136

28 Chaltaberia). In case of other villages the rate is more or less same. Following table (Table no. 5.6) gives sources, price and transportation of clay in the studied villages. Table no. 5.6 Source, price and mode of transportation of clay Village Name Source of Clay Rate Mode of Transportation Devalaya Nearby farming Rs. 6 7/- per big Van ground basket Shetpur-Palpara Bank of Vidyadhari Rs. 6 7/- per big Tractor and Van River basket Chaltaberia Nearby place Rs. 6000/- per truck Truck and van Atghara-Palpara Nearby farming field Rs. 1/- per small Van basket Sanksahar-Nischintapur Nearby farming field Rs /- per Van van Yashomantapur Nearby area Rs. 1.5/- per small Van basket Tarangakhali Nearby farming field Rs. 1/- per small Van basket Panchmura Land of Co-operative Rs. 300/- per Bullock cart and Van / from own land tractor/ bullock cart Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala Bank of Shali river Rs. 1/- per lump of Bullock cart and Van clay Surul Nearby area Rs. 1.5/- per small Van basket Adityapur Farming field at bank Rs /- per Tractor and Van of river Ajay tractor Makrampur Farming field at bank of river Ajay Rs /- per tractor Tractor and Van Preparation of Clay: The unprocessed clay which is brought from different sources has to be processed and prepared for the actual manufacturing. Firstly, the soil is cut into small pieces with the help of spade. Then two small buckets (balti) of water is mixed with one medium sized basket (majhari chubri) of mud. The proportion varies from village to village according to the texture of the soil. In some cases there is no measurement as such, water is added as required. The preparation of clay is mostly done in the courtyard of the house or outside the house in an open space (Fig. 5.36). 137

29 Roots, kankars and other impurities of the clay are taken out with the help of a thin sheet of bamboo (sieve like) called chata or chachna in local term. This process is locally known as Nek kara. In Panchmura and Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala the impurities are removed by hand. Sand is added and mixed with the soil in Chaltaberia, Arghara-Palpara, Tarangakhali, Panchmura and Surul where Entel mati is used for terracotta manufacture in which sand content is very low. The reason of using sand as told by the terracotta makers of Panchmura is that sand contains silica that prevents the products from cracking or bursting at the time of firing. However, not all villages where this soil is used add sand. The research participants argue whether or not to use sand depends on regional variation of soil and also the nature of firing. In the villages where Do-aansh mati is used, no additional sand is mixed as this type of soil itself contains sand. In Sonamukhi- Satyapirtala ash is added and mixed with the soil. Brick-dust (surki) is added in Shetpur- Palpara. No additional substance is added in Devalaya, Shankshahor-Nischintapur, Makrampur and Adityapur. Following table (Table no. 5.7) represents the nature of additional substances added to soil by the villagers. Table no. 5.7 Additional substances mixed with the soil in the villages Villages Devalaya Shetpur-Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara-Palpara Sanksahar-Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Panchmura Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala Surul Adityapur Makrampur Additional substances added to soil None Brick-dust Sand Sand None None Sand Sand Ash Sand None None The soil is then mixed by feet for two hours or so. This levigation process is locally known as Tal kara. On average baskets (chubri) of mud are taken out for preparation at a time. 138

30 Actual Process of Making Terracotta Objects: It is commonly observed that the techniques of manufacturing terracotta objects depend on the nature of products and the amount of production. The manufacturing process can be divided broadly into three categories: 1) Handmade, 2) Dice or Mould made, 3) Wheel made. Often it is seen that terracotta makers employ a combination of different techniques (Table no. 5.8). Their workplace is located inside the house, either the courtyard or in a separate room. 139

31 Table no. 5.8 Different techniques of terracotta manufacturing used in villages under study Village Hand Made Dice or Mould Made Wheel Made Partly Hand Made Partly Mould Made Partly Hand Made Partly Wheel Made Devalaya Shetpur-Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara-Palpara Sanksahar- Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Panchmura Sonamukhi- Satyapirtala Surul Adityapur Makrampur Partly Mould Made Partly Wheel Made The details of the three processes of terracotta manufacturing are given below. 1. Handmade: The prepared clay is given desired shape and form by hand. Larger shapes are given with the help of thumb and palm while smaller shapes and fine retouching is added with the help of figures (Fig. 5.37). Often they use sticks having sharp end for decorating the objects. While preparing large sized handmade terracotta objects as in case of Shetpur-Palpara, the prepared clay is kept in 4-5 lumps. Each lump is given a flat and circular shape by a pestle (bole) made out of stone. Then the flat rounded clay is modelled into desired forms by beating the clay with the help of bole for giving support to the clay and pitna made of wood for beating the clay and then by hand. 2. Dice or Mould Made: Moulds or dices are used especially if a particular form is made in large scale, after that finishing is done by hand. There are moulds made clay, terracotta and plaster of Paris. In Tarangakhali, a different type of mould is used for producing 140

32 big globular ghats. The base with body of these items is made with the help of moulds. In this case the moulds are made out of clay and these are placed permanently on the courtyard of their huts. The mould is first beaten with a wooden pitna. Extra sand (larger grain sized) is sprinkled on it. Then a thick coating of the prepared clay is given according to the shape of the moulds and this is again beaten by the pitna to get the desired shape (Fig. 5.39). The base with body is prepared like this and the rim is prepared by hand and the final retouch is also done by hand. Small pradips are often seen as mould made (Fig. 5.40). Terracotta plaques are mostly made out of moulds of Plaster of Paris or terracotta. Firstly the designs are carved out on the moulds (negative impression). Then the mould is filled up with clay and when dried the clay (plaque) receives the design of the mould as positive impression (Fig. 5.38). In Chaltaberia and Shetpur- Palpara double-mould technique is used to give the terracotta figures a roundish, three dimensional effect. In this technique two moulds are used, one for the front portion another for the back. After the production of front and back portions of the desired object these two portions are joined together by adding extra clay. The nature of moulds varies between villages. Following table (Table no. 5.9) summarises the different moulds used in different villages. 141

33 Table no. 5.9 Villages Devalaya Shetpur-Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara-palpara Different types of moulds used in villages under study Types of mould Terracotta Plaster of Paris Plaster of Paris Terracotta Sanksahar-Nischintapur Tarangakhali Panchmura Terracotta Clay Plaster of Paris, Terracotta 3. Wheel Made: Objects are made on single wheel. It has a disc on the superior side on which the terracotta object is thrown and a pivot and socket helps revolving the wheel. It is turned anti-clockwise by means of hand or with the help of a stick (Fig. 5.41). Both spoked and non-spoked wheels are used. Wheel made terracotta objects always have hand retouching. In Panchmura the basic frames of the objects such as horses and elephants are made part by part in wheel and then the spare parts are joined together by adding extra clay. In case of Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala horses and elephants are made into seven spare parts by wheel and then they are joined together with extra clay. In most of the villages terracotta ghats are wheel made. Some objects like Manasa ghat and Bastu pujar ghat require both wheel and hand-modelling. Colouring Process: Mainly two types of colouring agents are used by the terracotta makers, 1) natural colour and 2) artificial colour. Only in few cases they use both of these types (Table no. 5.10) according to the nature of objects prepared. The following table shows the nature of colouring agents used in the studied villages: 142

34 Table no Nature of colour used by the terracotta makers in different villages under study Village Natural Colour Chemical Colour Natural and Chemical both None Devalaya Shetpur-Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara-Palpara Sanksahar- Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Panchmura Sonamukhi- Satyapirtala Surul Adityapur Makrampur 1) Natural Colour: Two types of clay are used as natural colours: Gad (yellowish) and Banak (reddish). The colour from Gad and Banak are prepared by a precipitation process (Fig. 5.43). Gad mati and Banak mati are brought from either nearby river side or they buy these at Rs. 5/- to 6/- per kg. from the local vendors. Gad and Banak are processed separately but in the similar way. Both are first liquefied by mixing with water in separate pots and then are kept for days. After that the water from the top is carefully removed and the precipitated material is used as colour. In some villages Gad is called as Holud (yellow) Banak. In Devalaya and Makrampur Ela mati which gives a reddish orange colour is used. It costs around Rs. 10/- per kg. 143

35 Colouring is done before firing. In Panchmura and Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, objects are given three coatings or wash of colour before firing: two coatings of Gad (yellowish) and one coating of Banak (reddish). After firing the objects get a bright red colour. Some objects are burnished to increase their aesthetic beauty. A mixture of lac (gala) and spirit is given as a polish by a piece of cloth in that case after firing. In the villages where Gad is not used, only two coatings of Banak are given. Where Banak is not used only two coatings of Gad are given. Where Ela mati is used as colouring agent, two coatings are given. In few occasions no colour is given, objects are directly burnt to get reddish brown (terracotta) colour. The terracotta objects which are black in colour are prepared with the help of a special firing technique. This involves firing in closed condition in which black colour is generated as a result of carbon accumulation in reducing condition. In Panchmura and Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala, while getting a black colour, one coating of Gad is given before firing. 2) Artificial Colour: In the villages where artificial colour is used, they buy the colours at the rate of Rs. 600/- to 1500/- per kg., from nearby city or town market. Other agents required for colouring are Spirit (Rs. 50/- per litre), Lac (Rs. 300/- per kg) and Primer (white). In this case objects are coloured after firing. The most common colours they use are different shades of red, yellow and brown. Firstly the objects are given a coating of primer, then spirit and lac (gala) are mixed with the colour and two coatings of that mixture are given to the terracotta object. In Shetpur-Palpara and Chaltaberia spray guns are used for colouring large objects (Fig. 5.44). Decoration: Terracotta objects are decorated with the help of different tools like sticks, pointed iron rods locally known as boki, knives and even the caps and nibs of pen. This is done just after the shaping of the objects when the clay remains soft. The designs are of three types, a) reliefs, b) engraved or incised or etched designs, and d) paintings. The first two 144

36 categories of decorations are done before firing and the third category, i.e. paintings are executed after firing. It is seen that in case of handmade and wheel made objects reliefs are created by adding extra clay and minutely decorated by hand. Incised or etched designs are curved by using sticks, pointed iron rods, knives, etc. (Fig. 5.42). Paintings are made by poster colours using brushes. The motifs vary greatly. The most common motifs are female figures, erotic scenes, floral and faunal motifs, motifs of trees, leafs, motifs of Hindu gods and goddesses, depiction of stories from Hindu epics, rituals, scenes from daily life, etc. Details of nature of decoration in the studied villages is summarised in the following way (Table no. 5.11). Table no Nature of decoration and tools used in the villages under study Villages Nature of decoration Implements used Devalaya Etching Sticks Shetpur-Palpara Relief, etching and engravings Iron rods (boki), Pointed knives Chaltaberia Reliefs, engravings, etching Sticks, iron rods. Atghara-Palpara Painted decoration, etching Poster colour and brush, pointed sticks Sanksahar-Nischintapur Minimum etching Pointed sticks Yashomantapur Etching Pointed sticks Tarangakhali Minimum etching Pointed sticks Panchmura Reliefs and engraving, etching Iron rods with pointed ends, sharpened sticks, knives and a variety of moulds Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala Engravings, etching Iron rods with pointed ends, sharpened sticks, knives and a variety of moulds Surul Painting, Engraving, Etching Iron rods with pointed ends, Pen nibs, pen caps, sharpened sticks. Adityapur Engraving and Etching Iron rods with pointed ends, Pen nibs, pen caps, sharpened sticks. Makrampur Engraving and Etching Sticks 145

37 Process of Firing: Firing process commonly involves a proper arrangement of finished products, firing agents and creation of holes in the kiln to provide ventilation. Firing is done in closed kilns, locally termed as Pon, Poyan or Bhati. Kiln is located outside of the house in a separate place. Each family involved in terracotta making has either their own kiln or two or three families share a common kiln. Before firing the terracotta objects are sun dried. These sun dried objects are then carefully arranged in the kiln in layers. At the bottom of the kiln, bricks are placed at certain distance, on the top of which terracotta materials are placed. The gap between bricks provides base ventilation and also helps in placing fire woods. Dry straw is given between each layer to provide buffer and aid to the fire. In Chaltaberia, between each layers fire wood is kept primarily to provide direct fire on the products. Depending on the size of kiln layers vary. On the top of the arrangements a layer of broken pots are given which gives the support to the outer layer of kiln. On the top of the broken pots a layer of straw is given which is then covered with mud. At intervals on the entire mud covering holes are made for ventilation. At the bottom of the kiln an opening is kept for setting the fire. A variation of the process is found for the objects which are aimed to get a black colour. These objects require a closed firing condition; hence, the holes here are closed by mud which results in their black colour through accumulation of carbon on the objects. At Shetpur-Palpara, the clay objects are burnt up to 24 hours in low heat and after that for 8 hours at about 800 c c temperature. At Chaltaberia the terracotta objects are burnt in low heat for 2 days continuously and then up to 600 c temperature for hours. Other villages follow more or less same pattern of firing (Fig. 5.45, 5.46, 5.47). Tools Used in Terracotta Manufacture: The entire process of terracotta manufacture requires several tools. Spade (kodal) is used for initial cutting of soil. Sieve-like thin sheet of bamboo (chata) is used for taking out 146

38 the impurities of the clay. For shaping and beating of the clay in order to give its desired shape bole and pitna is used. Wheel of both spoked and non-spoked variety is used to wheeling. Single and double moulds of plaster of Paris and terracotta are used in moulding technique. For designing sharp and pointed implements including sticks, iron rods (boki), pen nibs, knives, etc. and for painting brushes are used. For colouring cloth, cotton, and sometimes spray gun, etc. are used (see Fig. 5.38, 5.40, 5.44, 5.48, 5.49). 147

39 Fig Lump of clay (back) and prepared clay (front) in Chaltaberia Fig A person manufacturing terracotta items by hand in Panchmura 148

40 Fig Terracotta makers are engaged in filling up the plaster-of-paris moulds with clay to take positive impression in Chaltaberia Fig A woman is using pitna on a mould for getting the shape of a large vessel; a finished product is also visible in Tarangakhali 149

41 Fig Terracotta mould for preparing pradip in Sanksahar-Nischintapur Fig A man is preparing pradip stands by using wheeling technique in Atghara-Palpara 150

42 Fig A man is decorating terracotta items with the help of a pointed tool in Adityapur Fig Preparation of natural colour in Panchmura 151

43 Fig A person is colouring a decorative pot with artificial colour by using spray gun in Shetpur-Palpara Fig Arrangement of terracotta items in kiln in Panchmura 152

44 Fig A closed kiln with clay covering on fire in Chaltaberia Fig Fired objects in kiln before being taken out in Panchmura 153

45 Fig Some of the tools used in decoration of terracotta items in Adityapur Fig Bole and pitna used for giving shapes to terracotta objects in Makrampur 154

46 Terracotta Marketing: After the firing of the products terracotta materials are sold at different markets. There are also instances of direct purchase of terracotta items from the terracotta making villages. Terracotta marketing ranges from selling of the products at local haats (biweekly markets) to regional, national and also international markets and craft fairs. A detailed study has been done on the marketing mechanism of terracotta products. Following is a tabular representation of the nature of marketing and extent of terracotta distribution in the villages under study (Table no. 5.12, Fig. 5.50). 155

47 Table no Nature of market participation among the villages studied Village name Local haats/ markets Regional haats and markets Nationalised export Export to international markets Craft and other fairs Devalaya Shetpur- Palpara Chaltaberia Atghara- Palpara Sanksahar- Nischintapur Yashomantapur Tarangakhali Panchmura Sonamukhi- Satyapirtala Surul Adityapur Makrampur Fig Nature of terracotta marketing among the studied villages 156

48 Apart from a few villages the nature and extent of distribution is still mostly restricted to local and regional markets (Table no and Fig. 5.50). Marketing of the terracotta products includes several steps, first, making a division of products, i.e. which is to be sold in local and regional markets and which is to be sold in national and international markets, second, packing of products, third, nature of transportation and finally, the pricing of products. Products and Markets: Products are divided on the basis of the nature and extent of decoration, popular forms according to the market demand. For example, the simplistic forms of horses and elephants are used in local rituals and hence have a local demand, therefore these are sold locally. Horses and elephants with elaborate decorations are mostly sold in national markets and different fairs in urban centres. An urban demand has been generated for Manasa related items. Items like terracotta ornaments and decorative items are gaining increasing urban attention and are sold in regional markets, fairs and urban centres. Places like Shetpur-Palpara, Chaltaberia and Panchmura not only export to major national cities like Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Goa, Chennai, Pune, and Raipur but also to countries like Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri-Lanka. A detailed study of the terracotta markets in villages, several tourist places and also in the city of Kolkata is carried out. Terracotta Markets in the Villages and Adjacent Regions: Ethnographic work has been done on the local markets associated with the villages under study. Each of the villages has their local ways of terracotta production and distribution cycles. Following is the ethnographic description of cases of terracotta marketing strategies at local levels. Strategies in North 24 Parganas: Devalaya: The selling of products is done at local haats. The selling becomes manifold in Charak mela, which takes place during Bengali Chaitra sankranti (middle of April). The fair continues from middle of March to middle of April. Throughout the year terracotta production is considerably limited to cater the local demands. During winter 157

49 and late winter the rate of production rises in order to cater the consumers at the Charak mela. The regular selling of products is done at one of the large haats, known as Amtala haat which takes place Monday and Friday. Because of single haat participation, the production and distribution pattern follow a simple cycle (Fig. 5.51). 158

50 Fig Schematic representation of simple cycle of production and distribution of terracotta items at Devalaya Shetpur-Palpara: The products are sold in local haats regularly. However, the main economic boom of the terracotta makers comes from the aesthetic products sold in urban centres of Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai of India and Dhaka of Bangladesh. However, for selling the products in the urban centre the terracotta makers, except in a few cases, depend on a group of middlemen who purchase the products at low cost. These are then transported to the urban centres to be sold to traders who then sell it to the urban consumers. They also participate in handicraft fairs which take place in Kolkata. At the time of fair, they concentrate more on producing artistic items typically having urban demand. Terracotta makers from Shetpur-Palpara participate in several regional haats including Goshaipur haat on Wednesday and Saturday, Harikhola haat on Sunday and Tuesday and Padmapukur haat on Tuesday and Saturday. Their production and distribution process is considerably complex (Fig. 5.52). 159

51 Finished products go to Goshaipur haat (Wednesday) and Harikhola haat (Tuesday) and Padmapukur haat (Tuesday) Finished products go to Goshaipur haat (Saturday) and Harikhola haat (Sunday) and Padmapukur haat (Saturday) Fig Schematic representation of complex production and distribution system at Shetpur-Palpara Chalataberia: Chaltaberia represents a terracotta and pottery production unit. Their products are sold in different markets of national and international level. Their distribution pattern includes a group of middlemen which means the terracotta makers lack direct contact to the market. Only a few families are regular participants of the regional markets and sell products at Kadamgachi haat on Tuesday and Saturday. The production cycle of Chaltaberia roughly follows the complex model of Shetpur-Palpara (Fig. 5.52). Strategies in South 24 Parganas: Atghara-Palpara: There is a seasonal demand for certain forms of terracotta materials such as Bastu pujar ghat. In the season, i.e. during January and February it is seen that there is a rise in informal economy surrounding the daily markets of Baruipur like Atghara Bazar, Baruipur Sarkar Bazar and Champahati Bazar. However, on regular basis 160

52 the terracotta items are sold at Surajpur haat on Monday and Thursday. The production cycle is as found in Devalaya (Fig. 5.51). There is a complex supply chain which develops a few days before Bastu puja which includes producers, procurers, transporters, and sellers. Sanksahar-Nischintapur: Terracotta products are sold at Sonakhali haat on Tuesday and Saturday. The simple production cycle follows roughly Fig Strategies in Purba Medinipur: Tarangakhali and Yashomantapur: Terracotta makers of both these villages follow a pattern of participation to a couple of local haats, viz. Ramtarak haat on Monday and Thursday and Uttar Narikelda Bazaar on Monday and Friday. While people from Yashomantapur attend both the haats, i.e. Ramtarak haat on Monday and Uttar Narikelda Bazaar on Friday, people from Tarangalhali attend only Ramtarak haat (Fig. 5.53). Tarangahali Yashomantapur Monday Thursday Friday Ramtarak haat Uttar Narikelda Bazaar Fig Haats and patterns of participation in the haats among the villages of Tarangakhali and Yashomantapur 161

53 Strategies in Bankura: Panchmura: The products are regularly sold at local and regional haats by the potters themselves, whereas their sale at different urban centres of the country and also in abroad depends on several middlemen for procuring and transporting the terracotta items. Most of the terracotta makers participate in a local haat at Panchmura on Saturday and Monday. Besides Panchmura haat they also participate in Taldangra haat especially during the festive seasons. Several families participate in handicraft fairs which take place in Kolkata. The Panchmura Potters Society established in provides support for marketing of the artistic terracotta materials to urban markets. Furthermore, the Department of Cottage and Small-scale Industry, Government of West Bengal is also trying to arrange for packaging, transportation and marketing of the materials. However, many of the families have temporary stalls at popular tourist destinations at Bishnupur, Mukutmanipur, Bolpur and nearby Industrial centre at Durgapur where they sell a range of well-liked items including large and decorated horses and elephants. There is a rise of incoming consumers from urban centres which include both the whole sellers, casual and occasional buyers (see fig. 5.54). Sonamukhi-Satyapirtala: Terracotta makers sell their products regularly at Ranpur haat on Sunday and Thursday. Some of the families have stalls at Ranpur bazaar where they sell their products daily. A few families have stalls at nearby tourist spot of Bishnupur (Fig. 5.54). 162

54 Fig Patterns of market participation in Bankura Strategies in Birbhum: The three terracotta manufacturing villages viz. Surul, Adityapur and Makrampur sell terracotta items in stalls at Bolpur and also in Bahiri haat on Monday and Friday and Debagram Bazaar which runs everyday. The cycle of terracotta manufacture and marketing follows simple cycle (Fig. 5.51). There are several stalls near the Visvabharati University where terracotta materials from these villages are regularly sold. Some of the families have stalls and the rest supplies materials via middlemen. Additionally there are also several permanent shops in and around Bolpur town which make regular sale of terracotta items. Surul has connections with urban centres like Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, etc. Terracotta makers from this village also participate in handicraft fairs. 163

55 Long Route Trading of Terracotta Items: There is an increasing trend of long route marketing of terracotta items. Villages like Sethpur-Palpara, Panchmura and Chaltaberia regularly exports items to several cities like Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Pune, Goa, etc. and also to several cities of other countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, Mayanmar and Sri-Lanka. Only a few families have developed direct connections to the markets of such cities in India. None of the terracotta makers have direct linkage to the cities abroad. There are primarily two means of long route trading, first, the direct contacts and second, via a number of middlemen. There are local transporters who purchase the items, bear the transportation cost from the village to the urban centres and get money from urban middlemen cum sellers. The urban middlemen cum sellers sell items to shop owners and also make personal sales (Fig. 5.55). Fig Mechanism of long distance trade via middlemen With the involvement of middlemen there is a stark price difference. Following table and figure (Table no and Fig. 5.56) represents price difference of a few items at manufacturers local selling place and at Kolkata. 164

56 Table no Local and urban centre price difference Products Average Local Price (Rs.) Average Urban Price at Kolkata (Rs.) Percentage of Price Hike Large horses % Large elephants % Manasa Chali % Dolls of various types % Small dolls, pen stand, vase, small horses etc % Terracotta plaques % Average local price (Rs.) Average urban price at Kolkata (Rs.) Large horses Large elephants Manasa Chali Dolls of various types Small dolls, pen stand, etc. Terracotta plaques Fig Price difference between local and urban centres Terracotta Markets in Tourist Places: Terracotta markets have significantly developed in several tourist places in Bankura and Birbhum and also in urban markets of Kolkata. The markets are formed near to famous places where a lot of people make visits. A study has been carried out to understand the 165

57 nature of terracotta items and their potential customers at Bishnupur, a famous historical place for tourists and at Mukutmanipur near the famous dam in Bankura and at Shantiniketan in Birbhum. Markets in Bishnupur and Mukutmanipur: At Bishnupur there is a separate place called terracotta market where several stalls are set up. At Mukutmanipur several temporary stalls near the entrance to the dam represent the terracotta market. The terracotta materials range from tiny dolls, ornaments to giant horses, elephants and Manasa chali, etc. There is a complete absence of simple forms of terracotta horses and elephants which are most popular in the local haats. Each day the market remains open from morning to evening but the pace quickens during the weekends. Attendance to the fair remains considerably high in winter season when the number of tourist is considerably high. In order to serve all economic classes the price ranges from Rs. 10/- to Rs. 4000/-. Markets in Shantiniketan: Shantiniketan (Bolpur) represents another important centre of marketing of terracotta items. While there are several permanent stalls at the entrance of Visvabharati University, the number of stalls increases significantly during festive seasons. For example, in Poushmela apart from local terracotta stalls a number of temporary stall holders from outside bring terracotta items from Bankura. Terracotta markets of Kolkata: Kolkata represents one of the major centres of terracotta consumption. The range of items includes small dolls and ornaments to large horses and elephants, tiles or plaques, furniture, and other decorative items. The formal market of terracotta involves a number of government sponsored and government stores for promotion of handicrafts. More recently there is a trend of selling terracotta items at shopping malls, and gift shops. Outside of this formal market there is a substantive development of informal economy based on regular selling of small terracotta items. Three of the major centres of such informal sector participation in terracotta items are Gariahat market in south, Hatibagan market in north and near Rabindrasadan-Nandan area. The most conspicuous items are terracotta ornaments which are gaining immense popularity among the womenfolk of the city. Along with these items there are small and 166