UNIT10: Science, Technology and Ethics

Transcription

1 UNIT10: Science, Technology and Ethics Ethics: A system of moral principle or values Principle: A basic truth, law, or assumption Value: A principle, standard, or quality considered worthwhile

2 Focus of Ethical Dilemmas in S&T Ethical issues related to science and technology usually focus on the following: Medicine Military Economics

3 Ethics in Medicine: Biotechnology Cloning Gene Therapy Altering species for enhanced production, e.g., growth hormone Medicine Transplants Life Extending Machines Fertility

4 Ethics and the Military Weapons of Mass Destruction Nuclear Testing Human subjects in Military Experiments, i.e., Chemical Warfare, LSD, Nuclear testing

5 Ethics and Economics Pollution for Profit Whistle Blowers Monopolies Advertising Buying Influence

6 Ethical Decision Making in S&T Generally ethical issues can be usefully clarified if the following considerations to ethical decision and judgment making are applied. 1. The facts of the matter 2. Affected Patients and Their Interests (all affected parties) 3. Key concepts, criteria, and principles (What is life? What does it mean to kill) 4. Ethical Theories and Arguments

7 Ethical Theories and Arguments The theories and arguments for ethical behavior in science and technology have developed over many centuries. The sources and foundations for our ethical and moral behavior are usually traced to religion, family, schools, employers, moral leaders, even ancient philosophers. Generally speaking our ethical decisions can be associated with one of three models ethical decision making. Teleology (Consequence Ethics) Deontology (Duty Ethics) Personal Ethics

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11 Teleology (Consequence Ethics) Teleology (Consequence Ethics): determination of rightness or wrongness based on consequences. Utilitarianism - the view that an action or policy is right if and only if it is likely to produce at least as great a surplus of good over evil consequences as any available alternative Hedonic Utilitarians: 19th century, Jeremy Bentham, Pleasure is the only good and pain the only bad Ideal Utilitarians: Friendship and beauty (good) and opposites, alienation and ugliness (bad)

12 Deontology (Duty Ethics) Deontology (duty ethics): Certain actions are inherently or intrinsically right or wrong - that is, right or wrong regardless of consequences. For example, telling lies or breaking a promise are intrinsically wrong, regardless of the consequences

13 Six Classifications of S&T Ethical Conflicts 1. Violation of Established World Orders: (Natural or Social Order of Things): 2. Violations of Supposedly Exception less Moral Principles 3. Distribution of Science or Technology Related Benefits 4. Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent 5. Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent 6. Science or Technology-Engendered Positive Rights

14 Violation of Established World Orders: (Natural or Social Order of Things): Some ethical conflicts arise from the fact that scientific or technological breakthroughs make possible actions that some believe violate some established natural or social order. Biomedicine Genetic Engineering In vitro fertilization Animal Science:Transgenic Animals (Beefalo, etc.) Bovine Growth Hormone

15 Ethical Responses to Violations of Established World Orders: (Natural or Social Order of Things): Teleologists: Concern for safety of humans who consume from an unnatural alliance Deontologists: The natural order of things is intrinsically good. Technology is seen as artificial, therefore, its use to change the natural order is bad. Those in favor of this technology might counter by saying that God created the natural order. Humans are part of the natural order. Therefore, intervention of humans is natural. Some opposition to intervention in the natural or social order is based on sacredness. Examples: Hasidic Community of Brooklyn, NY. Birth control is forbidden on the basis of the Torah. Wahibi Muslim sect. TV violates sacred order related to the Koran.

16 Violations of Supposedly Exception less Moral Principles Ethical issues related to the use, failure to use, or withdrawal of particular scientific or technological procedures that are seen by some as violating one or another important moral principles that is believed exception less. Examples: 1. Any course of action sure to result in the destruction of innocent civilian lives in time of war is ethically impermissible. Iraq 2. Life must always be preserved (Kavorkian) 3. A human being must never be treated merely as a means to an end (harvesting of fetal tissue).

17 Distribution of Science or Technology Related Benefits Benefits of developments in science and technology allocated in ways that do not seem equitable to one or another social groups; particularly so with respect to medical benefits, whether diagnostic tests, surgical procedures, or therapeutic drugs devices or services. The ethical issue often centers on who should receive the benefits and who will not. Often life and death decisions. Example: Transplant criteria often based on middle class values. 1. Motivated to save life 2. Understands the benefits 3. Capable of adhering to strict diet 4. Show up for post transplant appointments 5. Post treatment quality of life 6. Contribution of treatment candidate to community

18 Ethical Responses to Distribution of Science or Technology Related Benefits Deontologists: Medical care is a basic human right, therefore, it is morally unthinkable to deny a person treatment simply because of socio-economic status. Teleologists: May find the concept of absolute right potentially dangerous; that is that guaranteeing everyone who needs an expensive exotic treatment may preclude many more individuals from getting less expensive, more beneficial, non-life-or-death treatments. Individuals do not have the moral right to draw, without limit, on public or insurance company funds to have their lives extended, regardless of the quality sustained life.

19 Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent Developments in science and technology while undertaken to benefit one group, may inflict harm or impose significant risk of harm on another without the latter s prior consent. Examples: Research on animals; production of crossborder and multi generational pollution; the maintenance of carcinogen - containing workplaces; and the operation of hair trigger military defense systems.

20 Responses to Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent Teleologists: on cost-benefit grounds, activities that promise future benefits for humans but inflict suffering on animals are ethically permissible and perhaps obligatory. Rationale: since animals cannot consent to anything, they are different in a moral ly relevant respect from humans. Deontologists: Research using animals as morally wrong because animals are not capable of consenting.

21 Science or Technology Precipitated Value Conflicts: Scientific or technological advances allow something new to be done that precipitates a value conflict. Example: Human life preservation and death with dignity. The critical point is that this conflict would not exist without technology. Example: Genetic tests showing predisposition for certain diseases. Should disclosure be made? What actions are appropriate?

22 Science or Technology-Engendered Positive Rights Irrevocable Entitlements: Right to life and liberty Privacy is a part of liberty. Technology is often perceived as a threat to rights of privacy.

23 Other Issues: Ethics in Science and Technology Public Harm of Aggregation: Accumulation of small transgressions by human s results in an aggregation that has significant consequences. Example: The aggregate pollution of 400 million automobiles. Practitioner Problems: Falling within the province of Professional Ethics we often rely, perhaps unfairly, on the scientist or technologist to make the ethical decision

24 Other Issues: Ethics in Science and Technology (cont.) Problems of Execution: Edward Wenk s three kinds of ethical issues faced by engineers; 1. Distributive Justice: Should a project be given approval if a non trivial degree of risk to health and safety could exist without the consent of those within the impact area? Examples: Hydroelectric dam in an unstable area. Dilemma often relates to what constitutes acceptable risk 1932, U.S. Public Health Service, 432 Black Males 1950s CIA, mind controlling experiments Biological Warfare, 239 tests 2. Whistle Blowing: Cheap unreliable designs; testing shortcuts; misrepresented results; faulty manufacturing; botched installations, etc. Example: Morton Thiokal - O-rings 1986 Challenger 3. Consideration of Long-term Effects: Example: Half-life of nuclear waste, Design of Obsolescence

25 The Challenge of Contemporary Science and Technology to Traditional Ethical Theory Developments in contemporary science and technology require revisions in traditional ethical thinking and decision making. McGinn Proposal Qualified Neo Consequntialism: Assessments must have the following Neo Consequentialist Qualities: 1. Focused on harm and well-being: directed to identifying and weighing the importance of consequences likely to influence the harm or well being of affected patients 2. Refined: designed to be sensitive to subtle effects 3. Comprehensive: designed to attend to all harm and well being related effects - social, cultural, as well as economic and physical on all participants. 4. Discriminating: Designed to enable scientific and technological options to be examined on a case-by-case basis. 5. Prudent: Embodying and attitude toward safety